أحمد محمد لبن Ahmad.M.Lbn مؤسس ومدير المنتدى
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| الفصل الثاني: أبنية الاستشراق وإعادة بنائها أولًا: حدود أعادوا رسمها، وقضايا أعادوا تعريفها ودين جعلوه علمانيًّا (1) Gustave Flaubert, Bouvard et Pecuchet, vol. 2 of Oeuvres, ed. A. Thibaudet and R. Dumesnil (Paris: Gallimard, 1952), p. 985. (2) There is an illuminating account of these visions and Utopias in Donald G. Chariton, Seculer Religions in France, 1815–1870 (London: Oxford University Press, 1963). (3) M. H. Abrams, Natural Supernaturalism: Tradition and Revolution in Romantic Literature (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1971), p. 66. (4) For some illuminating material see John P. Nash, “The Connection of Oriental Studies with Commerce, Art, and Literature During the 18th-19th Centuries,” Manchester Egyptian and Oriental Society Journal 15 (1930): 33–9; also John F. Laffey, “Roots of French Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century: The Case of Lyon,” French Historical Studies 6, no. 1 (Spring 1969): 78–92, and R. Leportier, L’Orient Porte des lndes (Paris: editions France-Empire, 1970). There is a great deal of information in Henri Omont, Missions archeologiques francaises en Orient aux XVIIs et XVIII6 siecles, 2 vols. (Paris: Imprimerie nationale, 1902), and in Margaret T. Hodgen, Early Anthropology in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1964), as well as in Norman Daniel, Islam, Europe and Empire (Edinburgh: University Press, 1966). Two indispensable short studies are Albert Hourani, “Islam and the Philosophers of History,” Middle Eastern Studies 3, no. 3 (April 1967): 206–68, and Maxime Rodinson, “The Western Image and Western Studies of Islam,” in The Legacy of Islam, ed. Joseph Schacht and and C. E. Bosworth (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1974), pp. 9–62. (5) P. M. Hotel, “The Treatment of Arab History by Prideaux, Ockley, and Sale,” in Historians of the Middle East, ed. Bernard Lewis and P. M. Holt (London: Oxford University Press, 1962), p. 302, See also Holt’s The Study of Modern Arab History (London: School of Oriental and African Studies, 1965). (6) The view of Herder as populist and pluralist is advocated by Isaiah Berlin, Vico and Herder: Two Studies in the History of Ideas (New York: Viking Press, 1976). (7) For a discussion of such motifs and representations, see Jean Starobinski, The Invention of Liberty, 1700–1789, trans. Bernard C. Smith (Geneva, Skira, 1964). (8) There are a small number of studies on this too-little-investigated subject. Some well-known ones are: Martha P. Conant, The Oriental Tale in England in the Eighteenth Century (1908; reprint ed., New York: Octagon Books, 1967); Marie E. de Meester, Oriental Influences in the English Literature of the Nineteenth Century, Anglistische Forschungen, no. 46 (Heidelberg, 1915); Byron Porter Smith, Islam in English Literature (Beirut: American Press, 1939). See also Jean-Luc Doutrelant, “L’Orient tragique au XVIIP siècle,” Revue des Sciences Humaines 146 (April–June 1972): 255–82 (9) Michel Foucault, The Order of Thing: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences (New York: Pantheon Books, 1970), pp. 138, 144. See also Francois Jacob, The Logic of Life: A History of Heredity, trans. Betty E. Spillmann (New York: Pantheon Books, 1973), p. 50 and Passim, and Georges Canguilhem, La Connaissance de la vie (Paris: Gustave-Joseph Vrin, 1969), pp. 44–63. (10) See John G, Burke, “The Wild Man’s Pedigree: Scientific Method and Racial Anthropology,” in The Wild Man Within: An Image in Western Thought from the Renaissance to Romanticism, ed, Edward Dudley and Maximillian E. Novak (Pittsburgh, Pa.: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1972), pp. 262–8. See also Jean Biou, “Lumieres et anthropophagie,” Revue des Sciences Humaines 146 (April-June 1972): 223–34.
ثانيًا: سلفستردي ساسي وإرنست رينان (1) Henri Deherain, Silvestre de Sacy: Ses Contemporains et ses disciples (Paris: Paul Geuther, 1938), p. 111. (2) For these and other details see ibid., pp. i-xxxiii. (3) Due de Broglie, “Eloge de Silvestre de Sacy,” in Sacy, Melanges de litterature orientale (Paris: E. Ducrocq, 1833), p. xii. (4) Bon Joseph Dacier, Tableau historique de l’erudition francaisa, ou Rapport sur les progres de fhistoire et de la litterature ancienne depuis 1789 (Paris: Imprimerie imperiale, 1810), pp. 23, 31, 35. (5) Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, trans. Alan Sheridan (New York: Pantheon Books, 1977), pp. 193-4. (6) Broglie, “Eloge de Silvestre de Sacy,” p. 107. (7) Sacy, Melanges de litterature orientale, pp. 107, 110, 111-12. (8) Silvestre de Sacy, Chrestomathie arabe, ou Extraits de divers ecrivains arabes, tant en prose qu’en vers, avec une traduction francaise et des notes, d l’usage des eleves de l’Ecole royale royale et special des langues orientales vivantes (vol. 1, 1826; reprint ed., Osnabriick: Biblio Verlag, 1973), p. viii. (9) For the notions of “supplementarity” “supply,” and “supplication,” see Jacques Derrida, De la grammatologia (Paris: Editions de Minuit, 1967), p. 203 and passim. (10) For a partial list of Sacy’s students and influence see Johann W. Fuck, Die Arabischen Studien in Europa bis in den An fang des 20. Jahrhunderts (Leipzig: Otto Harrassowitz, 1955), pp. 156-7. (11) Foucault’s characterization of an archive can be found in The Archaeology of Knowledge and the Discourse on Language, trans. A. M. Sheridan Smith and Rupert Sawyer (New York: Pantheon Books, 1972), pp. 79–131. Gabril Monod, one of Renan’s younger and very perspicacious contemporaries, remarks that Renan was by no means a revolutionary in linguistics, archaeology, or exegesis, yet because he had the widest and the most precise learning of anyone in his period, he was its most eminent representative (Renan, Taine, Michelet [Paris: Calmann-Levy, 1894], pp. 40-1). See also Jean-Louis Dumas, “La Philosophic de l’histoire de Renan,” Revue de Metaphysique et de Morale 77, no. 1 (January-March 1972): 100–28. (12) Honore de Balzac, Louis Lambert (Paris: Calmann-Levy, n.d.), p. 4. (13) Nietzsche’s remarks on philology are everywhere throughout his works. See principally his notes for “Wir Philologen” taken from his notebooks for the period January-July 1875, translated by William Arrowsmith as “Notes for ‘We Philologists’,” Arion, N. S. (1974): 279–380; also the passages on language and perspectivism in The Will to power, trans. Walter Kaufmann and R. J. Hollingdale (New York: Vintage Books, 1968). (14) Ernest Renan, L’Avenir de la science: Pensees de 1848, 4th ed. (Paris: Calmann-Levy, 1890), pp. 141, 142–5, 146, 148, 149. (15) Ibid., p. xiv and passim. (16) The entir opening chapter—bk. 1, chap 1—of the Histoire generate et systeme compare des langues semitiques, in Oeuvres completes, ed. Henriette Psichari (Paris: Calmann-Levy, 1947–61), 8: 143–63, is a virtual encyclopedia of race prejudice directed against semites (i.e., Moslems and Jews). The rest of the treatise is sprinkled generously with the same notions, as are many of Renan’s other works, including L’Avenir de la science, especially Renan’s notes. (17) Ernest Renan, Correspondence; 1846–1871 (Paris: Calmann-Levy, 1926), 1: 7–12. (18) Ernest Renan, Souvenirs d’enfance et de jeunesse, in Oeuvres completes, 2: 892. Two works by Jean Pommier treat Renan’s mediation between religion and philology in valuable detail: Renan, d’apres des documents inedits (Paris: Penin, 1923), pp. 48–68, and La Jeunesse clericale d’Ernest Renan (Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1933). There is a more recent account in J. Chaix-Ruy, Ernest Renan (Paris: Emmanuel Vitte 1956), pp. 89–111. The standard description—done more in terms of Renan’s religious vocation is still valuable also: Pierre Lasserre, La Jeunesse d’Ernest Renan: Histoire de la crise religieuse au XIX9 siecle, 3 vols. (Paris: Gamier Freres, 1925). In vol. 2, pp. 50–166 and 265–98 are useful on the relations between philology, philosophy, and science. (19) Ernest Renan, “Des services rendus aux sciences historiques par la philologia,” in Oeuvres completes 8: 1228. (20) Renan, Souvenirs, p. 892. (21) Foucault, The Order of Things, pp. 290–300. Along with the discrediting of the Edenic origins of language, a number of other events—the Deluge, the building of the Tower Babel—also were discredited as explanations. The most comprehensive history of theories of linguistic origin is Arno Borst, Der Turmbau von Bable: Geschichte der Meinungen uber Ursprung und Vielfalt der Sprachen und Volker, 6 vols, (Stuttgart: Anton Hiersemann, 1957–63). (22) Quoted by Raymond Schwab, La Renaissance orientale (Paris: Payot, 1950), p. 69. On the dangers of too quickly succumbing to generalities about Oriental discoveries, see the reflections of the distinguished contemporary Sinologist Able Remusat, Melanges postumes d’histoire et litterature orientales (Paris: Imprimerie royale, 1843), p. 226 and passim. (23) Samule Taylor Coleridge, Biographia Literaria, chap. 16, in Selected poetry and Prose of Coleridge, ed. Donald A, Stauffer (New York: Random House, 1951), pp. 276-7. (24) Benjamin Constant, Oeuvres, ed. Alfred Roulin (Paris: Gallimard, 1957), p. 78. (25) Abrams, Natural Supernaturalism, p. 29. (26) Renan, De l’origine du langage, in Oeuvres completes, 8: 122. (27) Renan, “De la part des peuples semitiques dans l’histoire de la civilisation,” in Oeuvres completes, 2: 320. (28) Ibid., p. 333. (29) Renan, “Trois Professeurs au College de France: Etienne Quatremere,” Oeuvres completes, 1: 129. Renan was not wrong about Quatremere,” who had a talent for Picking interesting subjects to study and then making the quite uninteresting. See his essays “Le Gout des livres chez les orientaux” and “Des sciences chez les arabes,” in his Melanges d’histoire et de philologie orientales (Paris: E. Ducrocq, 1861), pp. 1–57. (30) Honore de Balzac, La Peau de chagrin, vol. 9 (Etudes philosophiques 1) of La Comedie humaine, ed. Marcel Bouteron (Paris: Gallimard, 1950), p. 39; Renan, Histoire generale des langues semitiques, p. 134. (31) See, for instance, De l’origine de langage, p. 102, and Histoire generale, p. 180. (32) Renan, L’Avenir de la science, p. 23. The whole passage reads as follows: “Pour moi, je ne connais qu’un seui resultat a la science, c’est de resoudre l’enigme, c’est de dire definitivement a l’homme le mot des choses, c’est de l’expliquer a lui-meme, c’est de lui donner, au nom de la seule autorite legitime qui est la nature humaine toute entiere, le symbole que les religions lui donnaient tout fait et qu’ils ne peut plus accepter”. (33) See Madeleine V.-David, Le Debat sur les ecritures et l’hUroglyphe aux XVII9 et XVIII⋆ siecles et l’application de la notion de dechiffrement aux ecritures mortes (Paris: S.E.V.P.E.N., 1965), p. 130. (34) Renan is mentioned only in passing in Schwab’s La Renaissance orientale, not at all in Foucault’s The Order of Things, and only somewhat disparagingly in Holger Pederson’s The Discovery of Language: Linguistic Science in the Nineteenth Century, trans. John Webster Spargo (1931; reprint ed., Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1972). Max Miller in his Lectures on the Science of Language (1861–64; reprint ed., New York: Scribner, Armstrong, & Co., 1875) and Gustave Dugat in his Histoire des orientalistes de l’Europe du XI Is au XIXe siecle, 2 vols. (Paris: Adrien Maisonneuve, 1868–70) do not mention Renan at all. James Darmesteter’s Essais Orientaux (Paris: A. Levy, 1883)—whose first item is a history, “L’Orientalisme en France”—is dedicated to Renan but does not mention his contribution. There are half-a-dozen short notices of Renan’s production in Jules Mohl’s encyclopedic (and extremely valuable) quasi-logbook, Vingtsept ans d’histoire des etudes orientales: Rapports faits a la Societe asiatique de Paris de 1840 a 1867, 2 vols. (Paris: Reinwald, 1879-80). (35) In works dealing with race and racism Renan occupies a position of some importance. He is treated in the following: Ernest Seilliere, La philosophic de l’imperialisme, 4 vols. (Paris: Plon, 1903–8); Theophile Simar, Etude critique sur la formation de la doctrine des races au XVW siecle et son expansion au XIX⋆ siecle (Brussels: Hayez, 1922); Erich Voegelin, Rasse und Staat (Tibingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1933), and here one must also mention his Die Rassenidee in der Geistesgeschichte von Ray bis Carus (Berlin: Junker und Dunnhaupt, 1933), which, although it does not deal with Renan’s period, is an important complement to Rasse und Staat, Jacques Barzun, Race: A Study in Modern Superstition (New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co., 1937). (36) In La Renaissance orientale Schwab has some brilliant pages on the museum, on the parallelism between biology and linguistics, and on Cuvier, Balzac, and others; see p. 323 and passim. On the library and its importance for mid-nineteenth-century culture, see Foucault, “La Bibliotheque fantastique,” which is his preface to Flaubert’s La Tentation de Saint Antoine (Paris: Gallimard, 1971), pp. 7–33. I am indebted to professor Eugenio Donato for drawing my attention to these matters; see his “A Mere Labyrinth of Letters: Flaubert and the Quest for Fiction,” Modern Language Notes 89,” no. 6 (December 1974): 885–910. (37) Renan, Histoire generate, pp. 145–66. (38) See L’Avenir de la science, p. 508 and passim. (39) Renan, Histoire generate, p. 214. (40) Ibid., p. 527. This idea goes back to Friedrich Schlegel’s distinction between organic and agglutinative languages, of which latter type Semitic is an instance. Humboldt makes the same distinction, as have most Orientalists since Renan. (41) Ibid., pp. 531-2. (42) Ibid., p. 515 and passim. (43) See Jone Seznes, Nouvelles Etudes sur “La Tentation de Saint Antoine” (London: Warburg Institute, 1949), p. 80. (44) See Etienne Geoffrey Saint-HUaira, Philosophic anatomique: Des monstruosites humaines (Paris: puplished by the author, 1822). The complete title of Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire’s work is: Histoire generate et particuliere des anomalies de l’organisation chez l’homme et les animaux, ouvrage comprenante des recherches sur les caracteres, la classification, influence physiologique et pathologique, les rapports generaux, les lots et les causes des monstruosites, des varieties et vices de conformation, ou traite de teratologie, 3 vols. (Paris: J.-B. Bailliere, 1832–36). There are some valuable pages on Goethe’s biological ideas in Erich Heller, The Disinherited Mind (New York: Meridian Books, 1959), pp. 3–34. See also Jacob, The Logic of Life, and Canguilhem, La Connaissance de la vie, pp. 174–84, for very interesting accounts of the Saint-Hilaires place in the development of the life sciences. (45) E. Saint-Hilaire, Philosophic anatomique, pp. xxii-xxiii. (46) Renan, Histoire generale, p. 156. (47) Renan, Oeuvres completes, 1: 621–2 anehpassim. See H. W. Wardman, Ernest Renan: A Critical Biography (London: Athlone Press, 1964), p. 66 and passim, for a subtle description of Renan’s domestic life; although one would not wish to force a parallel between Renan’s biography and what I have called his “masculine” world, Wardman’s descriptions here are suggestive indeed at least to me. (48) Renan, “Des services rendus au sciences historiques par la philologie,” In Oeuvres completes, 8: 1228, 1232. (49) Ernest Cassirer, The Problem of Knowledge: Philosophy, Science, and History since Hegel, trans. William H. Woglom and Charles W. Hendel (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1950), p. 307. (50) Renan, “Reponse au discours de reception de M. de Lesseps (23 avril 1885),” in Oeuvres completes, 1: 817. Yet the value of being truly contemporary was best shown with reference to Renan by Sainte-Beuve in his articles of June 1862. See also Donald G. Charlton, positivist Thought in France During the Second Empire (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1959), and his Secular Religions in France. Also Richard M. Chadbourne, “Renan and Sainte-Beuve,” Romanic Review 44, no. 2 (April 1953): 126–35. |
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