Chapter Three: The Islamic Social System

Chapter Three: The Islamic Social System
Section One: The Meaning of Society and Social Life in Islam
Section Two: The Status of a Neighbourhood in Islam
Section Three: Maintaining Ties of Kinship
Section Four: Human Dignity and the Islamic Criteria for Justice and Superiority
Section Five: The Core Ethical Values of Islam and the Role of Ethics in Creating Social Cohesion
Section Six: Friendship and Companionship in Islam and the Relationship between Muslims and non–Muslims

Section One: The Meaning of Society and Social Life in Islam
Firstly: The Meaning of Society and Related Issues
Before discussing the Islamic social system in detail, it will be useful to define terms related to the topic’s specific vocabulary such as ‘society’, ‘community’ and ‘nation’.

1.  The linguistic definition of society:
the Arabic word for society derives from the trilateral root ‘ja–ma–‘a’ which means to gather something which is scattered or to collect it.

Something which is collected has been brought together from various places. Ibn Manthur mentions the idiomatic phrase of the Arabs ‘the people gathered’, meaning they assembled and came together from various places.(774) The way in which societies are formed can be inferred from this usage.(775)

2. The technical definition of a society:
the aggregate of people living together.(776)

A society may also be defined as:

a large group of people who live within the same geographical territory and share a social bond and common interests under a regulatory authority.(777)

3. The definition of an Islamic society:
an Islamic society differs from other societies in only a few respects, as will be discussed later.

An Islamic society is one wherein Muslims live harmoniously together within the same geographical territory and are governed by Islamic law under the supervision of a ruler from amongst them.(778)

4. The definition of a community:
a group of people united by one or more common characteristics, such as kinship or gender. According to this definition, communities are a component of society.(779)

5. The definition of a nation:
The Arabic word for nation, umma, has various meanings including: a period of time, a body of people, and religion.

In sociological terms, the word nation refers to a large group of people united by something they share in common, such as religion, place or time. The traits shared by a nation may be either chosen, such as belief and location, or given, such as gender and colour.(780)

6. The definition of the Islamic Nation:
In light of the religious texts, it is possible to define the Islamic Nation as being: groups of people united by Islamic creed, regardless of any other considerations.

This expansive definition is validated by the Quran, wherein Allah –the Mighty and Majestic– says:
(وَإِنَّ هَٰذِهِ أُمَّتُكُمْ أُمَّةً وَاحِدَةً وَأَنَا۠ رَبُّكُمْ فَاتَّقُونِ)
Sura al–Mu•minoon; (23): 52
(Meaning: And surely, this nation of yours is one nation, and I am your Lord, so fear Me.)

Despite the best efforts of the most countries, they fail to merge as a single coherent nation. For example, in spite of the formation of the European Union, each of the twenty–eight member states retains their own state features and operates independently, such as by concluding international agreements in their own names, for instance. The same is true of the fifty–five nations of the African Union.

However, the term ‘Islamic nations’ is non–existent due to the fact that the Islamic nation is a single, unified body, regardless of the linguistic, ethnic and geographical diversity observable between Muslims. This means that the Islamic nation is made up of several communities which all unite on the basis of Islam.(781)

Secondly: Social Life in Islam
Divine religions share the distinctive characteristics of reforming souls, enlightening minds and unlocking the doors to wisdom. Islam has the greatest share of these merits as it is the final, best, most comprehensive and most complete religion. It is no wonder that all issues are covered by Islam in great detail, including those pertaining to creed, manners, jurisprudence, society and politics.

Islam instils morals in people and provides them with a complete code of conduct to abide by. It sets very high standards and lays solid foundations for society to function in accordance with. The religion of Islam recognises the nature of humans as social creatures who cooperate to achieve common objectives and consequently, it grants certain rights to close relatives such as the right to financial support, inheritance and fine treatment. Furthermore, it establishes specific marital rights and duties to ensure love and harmony between spouses, rights for neighbours and other regulations, all of which help to maintain social relations.(782)

The way the Islamic belief system is intertwined with the practical aspects of worship clearly sets Islam apart from other divine religions, which were in reality progressive preparation for its coming. The Islamic social system constitutes part of the religion of Islam and teaches unity and fellowship which contribute to its universality.

Allah –the Mighty and Majestic– says:
 (إِنَّ الدِّينَ عِندَ اللَّهِ الْإِسْلَٰام)
Sura aali–‘Imran; (3): 19
(Meaning: Indeed, the religion with Allah is Islam.)

In another verse, He says:
(وَأَنزَلْنَآ إِلَيْكَ الْكِتَٰابَ بِالْحَقِّ مُصَدِّقًا لِّمَا بَيْنَ يَدَيْهِ مِنَ الْكِتَٰابِ وَمُهَيْمِنًا عَلَيْهِ)
Sura al–Ma•idah; (5): 48
(Meaning: And We have revealed to you the Book in truth, confirming that which preceded it of the Scripture and as a criterion over it.)

The greatest goal of the religion of Islam is the reform of society which can only be achieved if personal and community reform are achieved.

Allah –Mighty and Majestic– says:
(وَلَا تُفْسِدُواْ فِي الْأَرْضِ بَعْدَ إِصْلَٰاحِهَا)

 Sura al–A’raf; (7): 56
(Meaning: And cause not corruption upon the earth after its reformation. And invoke Him in fear and aspiration. Indeed, the mercy of Allah is near to the doers of good.)(783)

Ibn ‘Ashur –may Allah have mercy upon him– wrote:
“Among the extraordinary events decreed by Allah in support of this religion and in facilitating its emergence is that He caused it to appear in two tremendous stages; the Makkan period wherein the Messenger  resided in his birthplace prior to emigration, and the Medinan period after his emigration to Yathrib.

The two main purposes of Islamic legislation correspond precisely to these two periods, the first being characterised by personal reform and the second by social reform. By the start of the second period, at the time of emigration, The Prophet –peace be upon him– had a group of people who were fully prepared to spread the message of reform. This group consisted of approximately fifty early Muslims who had resided with The Prophet –peace be upon him– in Makkah, approximately eighty Muslims who had emigrated with him to Abyssinia and approximately four thousand Medinan Muslims from the Aws and Khazraj tribes. This number was able to propagate the reform message of Islam, to transmit its virtue to people and to openly invite to it, and at that point it was also fitting to establish and call to social reform.”(784)

The following sections will discuss the importance given to society in Islam, social relations and some qualities which help establish a flourishing society.

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(774) See: ‘Lisan al–Arab’ (8/53).

(775)•See: ‘al–Islam wa Binaa al–Mujtama’’ of Dr. Hasan Abu Ghuddah and others (p. 13).

(776) See: ‘Usul an–Nitham al–Ijtima’I fil–Islam’ of Shaikh Muhammad bin ‘Ashur (p. 39).

(777) See: ‘al–Islam wa Binaa• al–Mujtama’ (p. 13).

(778) See: ‘al–Islam wa Binaa• al–Mujtama’’ (pp. 13–4).

(779) See: ‘al–Islam wa Binaa• al–Mujtama’’ (p. 13).

(780) See: ‘al–Kulliyat’ of al–Kafawi (pp. 176–81).

(781) See: ‘al–Islam wa Binaa• al–Mujtama’’ (p. 14).

(782) See: ‘ad–Da’wah Ila al–Islah’ of Shaikh Muhammad al–Khidr Husayn (pp. 9, 48, 88–9, 192–3).

(783) See: ‘Usul an–Nitham al–Ijtima’iyy fil–Islam’ of Shaikh Muhammad at–Tahir bin ‘Ashur (pp. 11–2).

(784) See: ‘Usul an–Nitham al–Ijtima’i fil–Islam’ (p. 97).

Section Two:  The Status of Neighbourhood in Islam
Firstly: The Meaning of Neighbourhood
1. The Definition of Neighbours:
(i) the linguistic definition of the term ‘neighbour’:
Ibn Manthur –may Allah have mercy upon him– said: “Neighbourhood is synonymous with being in close proximity to something, and a neighbour is someone that lives close to you.

It is said:
‘He neighbours so–and–so’ meaning he lives in cohabitation with him.

Likewise, it is said:
‘so–and–so is neighbourly’ meaning they are good or model neighbours.”(785)

Ibn Manthur adds:
“A neighbour means one who lives near to someone and its plural is neighbours.”(786)

(ii) the technical definition of the term ‘neighbour’:
A neighbour is a person that lives within the proximity defined by Islamic law, regardless of whether they are Muslim or non–Muslim, pious or impious, friendly or unfriendly, amicable or hostile, harmless or harmful, related or unrelated, native or foreign.

Neighbourhood has varying degrees which differ depending on proximity, relatedness, religion, piety and other factors. These factors dictate how a person is to behave towards their neighbour.

2. The spatial limits of a neighbourhood:
the scholarly opinions regarding the spatial limits of a neighbour in Islam differ as follows:
(i) Some scholars fix this limit to forty houses in each direction, such as Aisha –may Allah be pleased with her–, az–Zuhri and al–Awza’i –may Allah have mercy upon them–.
 (ii) Other scholars limit it to ten houses in each direction.
 (iii) ‘Ali –may Allah be pleased with him– considered the limit to be as far as the human voice travels.
 (iv) Yet other scholars consider only adjoining houses to be one’s neighbours.
 (v) Still others consider attendees of the same mosque to be neighbours.

What is correct –and Allah knows best– is that the spatial limit of a neighbour is to be determined by the traditions of a people. Thus, the customary practices of a people define who one’s neighbours are.(787)

3. The expansive meaning of neighbourhood in Islam:
There is no doubt that neighbourhood refers primarily to residence, however the Islamic concept of neighbourhood is more comprehensive than this. The meaning of the term ‘neighbour’ is extended in Islam to include everyone encountered by a person in communal settings such as shops, marketplaces, parks, offices and classrooms. It also includes fellow travellers because of their spatial and temporal proximity to a person.

Similarly, a person’s spouse is considered to be their neighbour as is indicated by the saying of Allah –the Almighty–:
(وَالْجَارِ ذِي الْقُرْبَىٰ وَالْجَارِ الْجُنُبِ وَالصَّاحِبِ بِالْجَنۢبِ)
Sura an–Nisa•; (4): 36
(Meaning: The close neighbour, the distant neighbour and the companion by your side.)

Furthermore, neighbouring states and countries have rights of a neighbourhood over each other.

Lastly, protectors and protected are also referred to as neighbours because of the nearness between them.

Secondly: Islamic Instructions regarding Neighbours
Islam places great emphasis on the rights of neighbours. In Islam, contrary to other religions and man–made laws, a neighbour is granted sanctity alongside many other rights. Man–made laws neglect the rights of neighbours and allow for them to be undermined.

The status of the neighbour in Islam is such that Allah mentioned it in conjunction with His worship and oneness and alongside goodness to parents, orphans and relatives.

Allah –the Mighty and Majestic– says in the verse of the ten rights:
(وَاعْبُدُواْ اللَّهَ وَلَا تُشْرِكُواْ بِهِ شَيْ‍ًٔاً وَبِالْوَٰلِدَيْنِ إِحْسَٰانًا وَبِذِي الْقُرْبَىٰ وَالْيَتَٰامَىٰ وَالْمَسَاكِينِ وَالْجَارِ ذِي الْقُرْبَىٰ وَالْجَارِ الْجُنُبِ وَالصَّاحِبِ بِالْجَنۢبِ وَابْنِ السَّبِيلِ)
Sura an–Nisa•; (4): 36
(Meaning: Worship Allah and join none with Him in worship, and do good to parents, kinsfolk, orphans, the poor, the close neighbour, the distant neighbour, the companion by your side, the wayfarer, and those slaves whom your right hands possess.)

‘The neighbour who is near’ refers to those whom one shares blood relations with. Or it means: those who are spatially nearby. Other scholars explain it to mean Muslim neighbours, while yet others say it means one’s spouse.

‘The distant neighbour’ is interpreted by some scholars to mean non–immediate neighbours who are still traditionally considered to be from among one’s neighbours. Or it is said to mean non–relatives. It is also said to refer to one’s spouse or non–Muslims.(788)

There are many Prophetic traditions which highlight the rights of neighbourhood and enjoin fine treatment of neighbours, such as by protecting their reputation, preserving their honour, concealing their faults, hiding their mistakes, maintaining their privacy and refraining from offensive behaviour towards them. One of best narrations in this regard is the statement of the Prophet: “Gabriel enjoined me with good treatment of neighbours to the extent I thought he would assign them as heirs.”(789) i.e. I thought a command would reach me from Allah granting neighbours the right to inherit from each other. This utterance is both eloquent and expressive as it not only instructs with refraining from harming one’s neighbour, but also implies a person should be helpful toward their neighbours. The saying of the Prophet“…to the extent I thought he would assign them as heirs” is indicative of the great status of neighbours and the rights owed to them.(790)

Thirdly: The Rights a Neighbour is Owed in Islam
The rights a neighbour is due in Islam are many, however it is possible to group them into four main categories:
1. Refraining from harm:
The high status of neighbours in Islam and their sanctity, which have previously been discussed, is further highlighted by the severe threat facing those who harm their neighbours. Harm is prohibited in Islam in general, however causing harm to one’s neighbours is even more strictly forbidden.

Imam al–Bukhari, in his authentic collection of Prophetic traditions, reports a narration on the authority of Abu Shurayh –may Allah be pleased with him– that The Prophet –peace be upon him– said: “By Allah, he is not a believer! By Allah, he is not a believer! By Allah, he is not a believer.”

It was asked:
“Who, O Messenger of Allah?”

He replied:
“One whose neighbour does not feel safe from their harm.”(791)

Imam Muslim reports a narration in his authentic collection of Prophetic traditions, on the authority of Abu Hurayrah –may Allah be pleased with him– that The Prophet –peace be upon him– said: “One whose neighbour does not feel safe from their harm will not enter Paradise.”(792)

The narration of Abu Hurayrah –may Allah be pleased with him– is referenced in both the authentic collections of Imam al–Bukhari and Imam Muslim and mentions the statement of the Prophet: “Whoever believes in Allah and the Last Day should not harm their neighbour.”(793)

2. Assistance of neighbours:
Assistance is another of the rights a neighbour is owed in Islam. Rushing to the aid of a neighbour who a calamity has befallen, be it bodily injury, financial loss or personal issues, is a sign of nobility in a person.

3. Showing kindness to neighbours:
Good neighbourliness means more than merely refraining from harming one’s neighbours or assisting them. It includes all forms of kindness as kindness is proof of the goodness, faith and veracity of a person.

Another narration of Abu Hurayrah –may Allah be pleased with him– which is also referenced in both the authentic collections of Imam al–Bukhari and Imam Muslim records the statement of the Prophet: “Whoever believes in Allah and the Last Day should speak good or remain silent; whoever believes in Allah and the Last Day should treat neighbours with kindness; and whoever believes in Allah and the Last Day should honour their guests.”(794)

In a variant narration reported by Muslim, it mentions:

“Whoever believes in Allah and the Last Day should treat neighbours well.”(795)

Showing kindness to neighbours includes comforting them in times of grief, congratulating them in times of happiness, visiting them in times of sickness, greeting them, smiling at them when meeting them, offering them beneficial advice regarding both their worldly life and their hereafter and carrying out favours for them as much as possible.

4. Enduring the harms of neighbours:
Refraining from harming one’s neighbours, assisting them and showing them kindness are all meritorious acts, but in addition to these a person must overlook their neighbours’ faults and mistakes. They must tolerate the offensive behaviour of their neighbours, especially if a neighbour did not intend to cause offence or later regretted and apologized for their bad conduct.

Thus, enduring the harms of neighbours and taking the moral high ground by not retaliating is from the best of virtuous characteristics a person may possess. The pious predecessors perceived this meaning and would act accordingly. Al–Marruthi narrates the saying of al–Hasan: “Good neighbourliness is not merely to abstain from harm, rather good neighbourliness is to endure harm.”(796)

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(785) See: ‘Lisan al–Arab’ of Ibn Manthur (4/153).

(786) ibid (4/135).

(787) See: ‘Jami’ al–‘Ulum wal–Hikam’ of Ibn Rajab al–Hanbali (1/437); & ‘Fath al–Bari’ of Ibn Hajar (10/455, 461).

(788) See the exegesis of al–Baghawi ‘Ma’alim at–Tanzil’ (2/310, 211); ‘Zad al–Masir’ of Ibn al–Jawzi (2/78–81); ‘Jami’ al–‘Ulum wal–Hikam’ (1/437–8); & ‘Fath al–Qadir’ of ash–Shawkani (4/464–5).

(789) Reported by al–Bukhari (no. 6014) and Muslim (no. 2624).

(790) See: ‘al–Hidayah al–Islamiyyah’ of Shaikh Muhammad al–Khidr Husayn (p. 78).

(791) Reported by al–Bukhari (no. 6016).

(792) Reported by Muslim (no. 46).

(793) Reported by al–Bukhari (no. 6018) and Muslim (no. 47).

(794) Reported by al–Bukhari (no. 6018) and Muslim (no. 47).

(795) Reported by Muslim (nos. 47, 76).

(796) See: ‘al–Aadab ash–Shar’iyyah’ (2/16).

Section Three: Maintaining Ties of Kinship
Firstly: The Meaning of Kinship Relations and How to Maintain Them
1. The meaning of maintaining kinship relations:
Ibn Manthur –may Allah have mercy upon him– writes: “To maintain something is to join and connect it, and its opposite is abandonment.”(797)

He also writes:
“It is said: ‘so–and–so maintains the ties of kinship’ and ‘between those two there is a kin tie’ meaning: a relation and a connection”.(798)

Furthermore, he mentions:
“Maintaining is the opposite of severing.”(799)

He then defined the maintenance of kinship ties, saying:
“Ibn al–Athir said:
‘It is a metaphor used to refer to treating those a person is related to via blood or marriage with kindness, affection, gentleness and care, even if they are distant and hostile.”(800)

2. How to maintain kinship relations:
A person can ensure the maintenance of kinship relations in a number of ways, such as by visiting relatives, asking about them, giving them gifts, being considerate towards them, financially assisting the poor from among them and being amicable towards the rich among them, respecting the elders from among them and showing mercy towards the young and weak from among them, or keeping in touch by frequenting them with visits, through correspondence or by telephone.

Likewise, one may maintain ties of kinship by inviting relatives and hosting them, showing them affection, holding them in high regard and by making an effort with those who are distant from them. Other ways of maintaining family relations are by partaking in their celebrations, consoling them in times of grief, supplicating on their behalf, not holding grudges against them, reconciling between those of them who have fallen out, and by reinforcing the ties with those of them who are on good terms. Similarly, healthy kinship relations can be ensured by visiting relatives in times of sickness and responding to their invites. However, the best way of maintaining ties with relatives is by calling upon relatives to follow the right path and by enjoining them with good and forbidding them from evil.(801)

Secondly:
The Virtues of Maintaining Kinship Relations in Islam
The Islamic legislation mentions the various virtues of maintaining family relations. There are many Quranic verses and Prophetic traditions, as well as the sayings of scholars and intellectuals, which state its merits.

These include:
1. Maintaining ties of kinship is a sign of true faith in Allah and the Last day:
On the authority of Abu Hurayrah –may Allah be pleased with him– who said: Allah’s Messenger: –peace be upon him– said: “Whoever believes in Allah and the Last Day then should honour their guests; and whoever believes in Allah and the Last Day should maintain good relations with their kin.”(802)

2. Maintaining the ties of kinship is from the means of increasing one’s provisions and lifespan:
On the authority of Anas bin Malik –may Allah be pleased with him– who said: Allah’s Messenger: –peace be upon him– said: “Whoever wishes for their earnings to grow and for their lifespan to be prolonged, then they should keep ties with their kin.”(803)

The scholars have interpreted the prolongment of one’s lifespan and growth of earnings in the following ways:
(i) Prolongment in this context means Allah will bless the life of a person who maintains kinship relations, as well as granting them bodily strength, wisdom and determination. Thus, they will lead a life filled with good action.
(ii) Growth of earnings and prolongment of one’s lifespan are to be understood literally. According to this interpretation, the one who maintains the ties of kinship will be granted increased lifespan and greater earnings.

This is understandable because, just as longer life can be achieved by exposure to clean air, good food and other factors contributing to bodily and spiritual strength, Allah has made maintaining kinship relations another means to achieving an increased lifespan. There are two ways to achieve worldly longings: by physical means which are tangible to the senses, and by divine, lordly means which the One who has ability over all things and to Whom everything is subservient, decreed.(804)

3. Allah maintains ties with the one who maintains the ties of kinship:
Allah’s Messenger: –peace be upon him– said: “Allah created the creation and when He finished it, kinship rose up and said: ‘In this place I seek refuge in you from the severance of ties.’ Allah said: ‘Are you not content that I maintain ties with the one who maintains the ties of kinship and I sever ties with the one who severs the ties of kinship? It said: ‘Yes, indeed.’ He said: ‘That is for you.’(805)

4. Maintaining ties of kinship is from the greatest means to entering Paradise:
On the authority of Abu Ayub al–Ansari –may Allah be pleased with him– that a man said: ‘O Messenger of Allah, inform me of an action that will cause me to enter Paradise and be distanced from Hell.’ The Messenger of Allah –peace be upon him– said: “Worship Allah and do not associate partners with Him in worship, establish the prayer, give alms, and maintain the ties of kinship.”(806)

5. Maintaining kinship relations is an act of obedience to Allah –the Mighty and Majestic–:
Allah –the Almighty– said in praise of those who maintain kinship relations:
(وَالَّذِينَ يَصِلُونَ مَآ أَمَرَ اللَّهُ بِهِۦٓ أَن يُوصَلَ وَيَخْشَوْنَ رَبَّهُمْ وَيَخَافُونَ سُوٓءَ الْحِسَابِ)
Sura ar–Ra’d; (13): 21
(Meaning: And those who maintain the relationships Allah has commanded to be maintained and fear their Lord and are fearful of an evil reckoning.)

6. Maintaining ties of kinship is from the best of religious acts:
 Islam is a religion of social bonds, mercy and good conduct. It commands with the maintenance of kinship relations and forbids their severance, which leads to a unified and harmonious body of Muslims who share a feeling of mutual compassion. This is in contrast to man–made laws which do not account for such rights or pay them importance.

7. Maintenance of kinship ties is a principle shared by all divine religions:
All of the divine religions regard maintaining the ties of kinship to be among their core values and forbid severance of family bonds. This is indicative of its significance and virtue.

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(797) See: ‘Lisan al–Arab’ of Ibn Manthur (11/726).

(798) See: ‘Lisan al–Arab’ (11/727).

(799) See: ‘Lisan al–Arab’ (11/728) & ‘at–Takaful al–Ijtima’I fi ash–Shari’ah al–Islamiyyah’ of Dr. Muhammad bin Ahmad as–Salih (p. 107).

(800) ibid.

(801) See: ‘Qati’at ar–Rahim’ of Dr. Muhammad al–Hamad (p. 16).

(802) Reported by al–Bukhari (no. 6138).

(803) Reported by al–Bukhari (no. 5986) and Muslim (no. 2557).

(804) See: ‘Bahjat Qulub al–Abrar’ of Shaikh Ibn Sa’di (pp. 74–5); & ‘Majmu’ al–Fatawa’ (8/540).

For more detail regarding the aforementioned interpretations see: an–Nawawi’s explanation of ‘Sahih Muslim’ (4/16); ‘Fath al–Bari’ of Ibn Hajar (10/430); ‘Ifadat al–Khabar fi Ziyadat al–‘Umur wa Naqsihi’ of as–Suyuti; ‘Tanbih al–Afadil ‘ala ma Warada fi Ziyadat al–‘Umur wa Naqsihi min ad–Dala•il’ of ash–Shawkani (p. 32). Also see: ‘al–Adab an–Nabawi’ of Muhammad al–Khawli (p. 115); & Ibn as–Sa’di’s exegesis of the saying of Allah:

يَمْحُو اللَّهُ مَا يَشَاءُ وَيُثْبِتُ

Sura ar–Ra’d; (13):39

(Meaning: Allah eliminates what He wills or confirms.)

(805) Reported by al–Bukhari (no. 5987) and Muslim (no. 2554).

(806) Reported by al–Bukhari (no. 1396) and Muslim (no. 13).

Section Four: Human Dignity and the Islamic Criteria for Justice and Superiority
Firstly: Human Dignity in Islam
Islam establishes human dignity in a unique manner that is unrivalled by any other system, as is proven by the evidences of the Quran and the Prophetic traditions.

Sufficient in this regard is the saying of Allah – the Almighty:
(وَلَقَدْ كَرَّمْنَا بَنِيٓ ءَادَمَ وَحَمَلْنَٰاهُمْ فِي الْبَرِّ وَالْبَحْرِ وَرَزَقْنَٰاهُم مِّنَ الطَّيِّبَاتِ وَفَضَّلْنَٰاهُمْ عَلَىٰ كَثِيرٖ مِّمَّنْ خَلَقْنَا تَفْضِيلًا)
Sura al–Isra•; (17): 70
(Meaning: And indeed, We have honoured the children of Adam and carried them on land and sea and provided for them of the good things and greatly privileged them over much of what We have created.)

In this verse we see an example of Allah’s immeasurable grace and generosity, whereby He honoured the descendants of Adam in every sense; He honoured them with knowledge, moral sense, intellect, fine appearance, sending of the messengers, revelation of the holy books and subjugation of everything upon the earth.(807)

Shaikh Muhammad at–Tahir bin ‘Ashur –may Allah have mercy upon him– said in exegesis of the foregoing verse:
“Children of Adam refers to all of humankind and the descriptions they are given denote general rulings that concern them all, just as certain other rulings referring to specific groups of people are restricted to them.

This verse comprises five favours conferred upon humankind:
honour, the subjugation of land transport for them, the subjugation of sea vessels for them, the provision of good sustenance for them and privilege over much of creation.”(808)

He proceeds to brilliantly describe such favours by saying:
“The favour of honour that Allah conferred on humankind is something exclusive to them. To honour means to make respectable and worthy, not slavish or servile in appearance, movement or form. This is contrary to animals who do not know cleanliness, clothing, sophistication in food and drink, good posture, the etiquette of eating and drinking or how to make preparations and take precautions. Animals are characterised by their inability to develop positive traits or rid themselves of negative traits and they have no concept of knowledge, industry or civilization.

Ibn ‘Abbas gives a practical example of human dignity, pointing out that humans eat with their fingers and do not grab food directly with their mouths, just as they do not lap up water with their tongues, but instead they use their hands to raise water to their mouths when drinking. Use of utensils such as cutlery and vessels for eating and drinking is further testament to their dignified nature.

Transport means movement made with vehicles and refers in origin to land transport. Allah subjugated land transport for humankind by making ridings beasts subservient to them and inspiring humans to make use of them.(809)

He adds:
“Water transportation refers to movement by vessel; the term ‘carried them on sea’ is used by analogy with being carried on a riding beast and through frequent usage has become as popular as the original, literal meaning.

Allah –the Almighty– says:
(إِنَّا لَمَّا طَغَى الْمَآءُ حَمَلْنَٰاكُمْ فِي الْجَارِيَةِ)
Sura al–Haaqah; (69): 11
(Meaning: Indeed, when the water overflowed, We carried your ancestors in the sailing ship.)

Thus, the term ‘carried them on sea’ means that Allah inspired people to make use of vessels, sails and oars to move through the water. The ease of movement offered by this mode of transport which Allah facilitated for humans is comparable to being carried.

The provision of good sustenance means that Allah –the Almighty– inspired humans to sample various foods and eat whatever they enjoy, and He caused food to have signs indicating its edibility. Likewise, He made the human diet much more varied than the diets of all other animals, which only eat that which they are accustomed to. It is interesting to observe that the animals closest to humans in nature have the most diverse diets.

What is meant by the privilege given to humankind over the rest of created beings is that it is a marked privilege. This is due to the fact Allah mentions it among the favours He has bestowed upon humankind. It refers to the way in which Allah has allowed humans to use their intelligence and cunning to gain control over land animals. Sufficient is this as a privilege over other created beings.

The relationship between ‘honour’ and ‘privilege’ in the aforementioned verse is one of generality and specificity; honour is understood to mean the dignity they have been given in themselves whereas privilege is understood as being given preference over others. Allah has privileged humankind with intellectual capacity with which they dispose of their affairs, as well as with knowledge and comprehension; these are the privileges being referred to.(810)

Secondly: The Islamic Criteria for Justice
Justice means to give each person the rights they are owed and to enable them or whoever represents them to gain access to such rights. Justice may be served by verbal statement or physical implementation. It is the foundation upon which all rights are based, and it is a principle promoted by all divine religions, intellectual people and great historical figures.

A person’s innate nature yearns for justice and its implementation brings content to the souls. All human beings, regardless of time or place, agree upon the excellence of justice and its merit. Everyone wishes for justice to be established, though they differ regarding some of its details and its method of implementation.(811)

In Islam, justice is granted a great status and is considered from the foundations of the social system. There are many textual evidences in the Quran and the Prophetic traditions which highlight the various merits of justice and mention its details, as well as condemning its opposite: oppression and following of desires.

Owing to the comprehensive and expansive nature of justice, one is referred to the religious evidences for further detail relating to the intricacies of justice in Islam.

The following lines will outline the status of justice in Islam:
1. Allah –the Mighty and Majestic– orders justice with a firm command: This is reflected by the frequency with which the command for justice occurs.

Allah –the Exalted– says:
(إِنَّ اللَّهَ يَأْمُرُ بِالْعَدْلِ)
Sura an–Nahl; (16): 90
(Meaning: Indeed Allah orders justice.)

2. Allah’s command for justice be practiced is mentioned alongside Him warning from its opposite:
He –the Mighty and Majestic– says:
(يَٰٓأَيُّهَا الَّذِينَ ءَامَنُواْ كُونُواْ قَوَّٰامِينَ لِلَّهِ شُهَدَآءَ بِالْقِسْطِ وَلَا يَجْرِمَنَّكُمْ شَنَ‍َٔانُ قَوْمٍ عَلَىٰٓ أَلَّا تَعْدِلُواْۚ اعْدِلُواْ هُوَ أَقْرَبُ لِلتَّقْوَىٰۖ)
Sura al–Ma•idah; (5): 8
(Meaning: O you who believe, stand firmly for Allah bear true testimony. Do not let the hatred of a people prevent you from being just. Act justly, that is nearer to righteousness.)

i.e. let not your enmity of a people cause you to oppress them by not exercising justice with them.(812)

3. The command for justice takes many forms and is reiterated in many ways. It constitutes being just in speech, the establishment of a judiciary by which disputes can be settled, the divine legislation which places obligations and duties upon humans, religious verdicts, and being just witnesses.

Allah –the Almighty– says:
(يَٰٓأَيُّهَا الَّذِينَ ءَامَنُواْ كُونُواْ قَوَّٰامِينَ بِالْقِسْطِ شُهَدَآءَ لِلَّهِ)
Sura an–Nisa•; (4): 135
(Meaning: O you who believe, be upholders of equity and bearers of true witness.)

In this context, equity takes the meaning of justice.

4. Allah warns against negligence in establishing justice:
Negligence may be caused by pity, leniency, partiality or a person’s personal inclination.

Allah –the Mighty and Majestic– says:
 (يَٰٓأَيُّهَا الَّذِينَ ءَامَنُواْ كُونُواْ قَوَّامِينَ بِالْقِسْطِ شُهَدَآءَ لِلَّهِ وَلَوْ عَلَىٰٓ أَنفُسِكُمْ أَوِ الْوَالِدَيْنِ وَالْأَقْرَبِينَۚ إِن يَكُنْ غَنِيًّا أَوْ فَقِيرًا فَاللَّهُ أَوْلَىٰ بِهِمَا فَلَا تَتَّبِعُواْ الْهَوَىٰٓ أَن تَعْدِلُواْۚ وَإِن تَلْوُواْ أَوْ تُعْرِضُواْ فَإِنَّ اللَّهَ كَانَ بِمَا تَعْمَلُونَ خَبِيرًا)
Sura an–Nisa•; (4): 135
(Meaning: O you who believe, be upholders of equity and bearers of true witness, even if it be against yourselves, your parents or your relatives. Whether one is rich or poor, Allah is more concerned with their well–being than you are. So, follow not personal inclination, lest you may avoid justice. And if you distort your testimony or refuse to give it, Allah is ever Well–Acquainted with what you do.)

Justice is a virtue which not only causes a person to deal with others in a fair manner, but also encourages people to treat themselves fairly.

5. Islamic legislation assigns each action with a legal ruling:
This makes it possible to provide each person the rights they are owed and ensures that justice is served and that the people do not mistakenly oppress each other.

Allah –the Almighty– says:
(إِنَّآ أَنزَلْنَآ إِلَيْكَ الْكِتَٰابَ بِالْحَقِّ لِتَحْكُمَ بَيْنَ النَّاسِ بِمَآ أَرَىٰكَ اللَّهُ وَلَا تَكُن لِّلْخَآئِنِينَ خَصِيمًا)
Sura an–Nisa•; (4): 105
(Meaning: Indeed, We have revealed to you the Book in truth so that you may judge between the people by that which Allah has shown you. And do not be for the deceitful an advocate.)

In another verse, Allah says:
(وَنَزَّلْنَا عَلَيْكَ الْكِتَٰابَ تِبْيَانًا لِّكُلِّ شَيْءٖ)
Sura an–Nahl; (16): 89
(Meaning: And We have revealed to you the Book as an exposition of everything.)

Allah entrusted His Messenger with clarification of the Quran, just as He –the Almighty– says:
(وَأَنزَلْنَآ إِلَيْكَ الذِّكْرَ لِتُبَيِّنَ لِلنَّاسِ مَا نُزِّلَ إِلَيْهِمْ)
Sura an–Nahl (16): 44
(Meaning: And We revealed to you the message that you may clarify to the people what was revealed to them.)

The Prophet –peace be upon him– fulfilled this mission of clarifying and explaining the Quran through his sermons, lessons and by way of the revelation he received on various occasions.

6. Islamic legislation provides judicial appointment so that the rights of individuals are determined and granted to them when disputes arise. Islamic law imposes certain conditions and criteria for the judiciary, in order to verify the suitability of whoever is assigned this great responsibility. These qualities amount to having veneration for the Islamic legislation and being strict in its implementation; intelligence, in order to discern the truth; and courage, such that he is not unnerved by critics. In return, the judiciary are granted a sense of reverence and infallibility, such that disputing parties are bound by their judgements.(813)

Allah –the Almighty– says:
(ثُمَّ لَا يَجِدُواْ فِيٓ أَنفُسِهِمْ حَرَجًا مِّمَّا قَضَيْتَ وَيُسَلِّمُواْ تَسْلِيمًا)
Sura an–Nisa•; (4): 65
(Meaning: And then they find within themselves no discomfort towards your decision, but rather they submit in full, willing submission.)

7. The obligation of justice is inclusive of all people. It is not restricted to the political relationship between a ruler and their subjects, nor is it only applicable to the judiciary regarding their verdicts. Rather, it is inclusive of all members of a society, and applies to parents in relation to their family and children, spouses in relation to each other, and employees entrusted with the property.

A person must uphold justice at all times, in war and in peace, when conducting business transactions, as well as in other situations, regardless of whether they are dealing with relatives, strangers, offenders, law–abiding citizens, the mighty or the frail.

Owing to space constrains, further information on this topic cannot be provided here.(814)

Thirdly: The Islamic Criteria for Superiority and Notability
Islam –as has preceded– is a religion of justice and honour. Allah has honoured the descendants of Adam and favoured them over many other created beings. Likewise, the Islamic legislation establishes the universal principle of justice.

In this sub–section, the Islamic criteria for superiority and notability will be discussed. Superiority in Islam is based on a set of just criteria and on giving each person the rights they are owed without excess or diminution; there is no caste system, racism, or preference given on the basis of race, gender, colour or nationality in Islam.

The main criterion for superiority is God–consciousness, as well as other lofty characteristics.

Allah –the Exalted– says:
(يَٰٓأَيُّهَا النَّاسُ إِنَّا خَلَقْنَٰاكُم مِّن ذَكَر وَأُنثَىٰ وَجَعَلْنَاكُمْ شُعُوبًا وَقَبَآئِلَ لِتَعَارَفُوٓاْۚ)
Sura al–Hujurat; (49): 13
(Meaning: O mankind, indeed We have created you from male and female and made you peoples and tribes that you may become acquainted with one another.)

After mentioning the origin of humankind and stating that they are all descended from a single man and a single woman, Adam and Eve.

Allah establishes the criterion of superiority between humans:
(إِنَّ أَكْرَمَكُمْ عِندَ اللَّهِ أَتْقَاكُمْ إِنَّ اللَّهَ عَلِيمٌ خَبِيرٞ)
Sura al–Hujurat; (49): 13
(Meaning: Indeed, the most noble of you in the sight of Allah are the most God–conscious from among you. Verily, Allah is All–Knowing, All–Aware.)

The final sermon of The Prophet –peace be upon him– comprises the same meaning as the foregoing verse. He  said: “O people, your Lord is one and your father Adam is one. Verily there is no superiority of an Arab over a non–Arab or of a non–Arab over an Arab, or of a white man over a black man, or of a black man over a white man, except in terms of God–consciousness.”(815)

Thus, the criterion for superiority is God–consciousness; the more God–conscious a person is, the better they are than those who have less than them of it. This does not negate the fact there are qualities that come after God–consciousness which are valued by people, such as a good upbringing, knowledge, worldliness and having good repute among people.(816) Likewise, being recorded by history as being from the greats is another noble characteristic; The Prophet –peace be upon him– said: “People are of different natures; the best of you in the period of pre–Islamic ignorance is the best of you in Islam, provided you have an understanding of religious knowledge.”(817)

The perfect legislation of Islam does not disregard the differences, talents and inherent characteristics of people which have a positive impact on the world. People would not be able to bear a state of such artificial equality and it would result in a great deal of lost talent and potential which, in turn, would lead to corruption and instability of world order.

The crux of the matter is that Islam considers God–consciousness as the criterion for superiority and nobility, while at the same time it does not ignore other merits. Differentiation based on colour, gender, ethnicity, or age does not exist in Islam. Islam considers people as equals who have the same opportunities to excel and to perform righteous actions which they are rewarded on the basis of, without discrimination based on tribalism, age, caste, social class or the era they occupied.(818)

Prior to Islam, and in other religions, nations and tribes would privilege certain members of their societies. For example, the Israelites and the Levites were given special privileges in the Torah while amongst the Persian and Roman empires naturalised citizens were not granted equal rights to natives. The Arabs prior to Islam were much the same in this regard; they did not give the same rights to non–tribal people as they did to tribal people, nor did they have any regard for freedmen. Islam abolished all of these inequalities and instead considered people based on the meritorious attributes they possess.(819)

An example which illustrates this can be found in the response of Prophet Muhammad –peace be upon him– when the people questioned the leadership ability of Usamah bin Zayd who was a freedman. The story is referenced in the two canonical collections of Prophetic traditions on the authority of ‘Abdullah bin Umar –may Allah be pleased with them both– that the Messenger of Allah –peace be upon him– sent an army under the command of Usamah bin Zayd, which caused some people to criticize Usamah’s leadership. When The Prophet –peace be upon him–Muhammad –peace be upon him– heard of this, he stood up and said: “If you criticise his leadership then you are criticising the leadership of his father before him. By Allah, he was indeed worthy of leadership and was from the most beloved of people to me. Now his son from the dearest people to me after him.”(820)

Usamah and his father were criticized by the people due to the fact they were freedmen who were of non–Arab origin. The saying of the Prophet: “They are from the dearest of people to me” is indicative of their virtue, because a person can only earn the love of The Prophet –peace be upon him– through religious and moral integrity.(821)

The impunity of all people in Islam is further proof of equality in Islam. Many examples of this can be found in the Prophetic biography, such as the story of the woman from the clan of Banu Makhzum who committed theft during the time of The Prophet –peace be upon him– and who belonged to a respectable household. When The Prophet –peace be upon him– wished to punish her, The Emigrants were greatly worried by this as is reported by the two canonical collections of Prophetic traditions on the authority of Aisha –may Allah be pleased with her– who said: ‘The tribe of Quraysh were worried about the woman from the clan of Banu Makhzum who stole, so they said: ‘Who will intercede for her with the Messenger of Allah?’ They decided Usamah bin Zayd, being dear to The Prophet –peace be upon him–, would be suitable for the task. After Usamah’s attempt to intercede on her behalf, The Prophet –peace be upon him– said to him: “Do you intercede regarding a legal punishment prescribed by Allah?” Then he addressed the people, saying: “O people! Indeed, the people before you went astray because they used to leave their thieving nobles; however, they would punish their thieving peasants. By Allah, if Fatimah, the daughter of Muhammad, were to commit theft, I would have cut off her hand.”(822)

The foregoing has been a brief summary regarding superiority and notability in Islam.

----------------------------------------------

(807) See: al–Qasimi’s exegesis ‘Mahasin at–Ta•wil’ (10/250–1) & ‘Tafsir as–Sa’di’ (p. 463).

(808) See: ‘Tafsir at–Tahrir wat–Tanwir’ (15/164).

(809) See: ‘Tafsir at–Tahrir wat–Tanwir’ (15/165).

(810) See: ‘Tafsir at–Tahrir wat–Tanwir’ (15/165–6).

(811) See: ‘Tafsir at–Tahrir wat–Tanwir’ (14/254) & ‘Usul an–Nitham al–Ijtima’i fil–Islam’ (p. 174).

(812) See: ‘Usul an–Nitham al–Ijtima’I fil–Islam’ (p. 174).

(813) Further detail concerning the judicial system in Islam can be found under the discussion of the political system in Islam.

(814) For more information on this topic, see: ‘Usul an–Nitham al–Ijtima’i fil–Islam’ (pp. 174–9).

(815) Reported by Ahmad (no. 23536).

(816) See: ‘Tafsir at–Tahrir wat–Tanwir’ (16/260–3).

(817) Reported by al–Bukhari (no. 3203) and Muslim (no. 2526).

(818) See: ‘Usul an–Nitham al–Ijtima’i fil–Islam’ (p. 138).

(819) See: ‘Usul an–Nitham al–Ijtima’i fil–Islam’ (p. 138).

(820) Reported by al–Bukhari (no. 4469) and Muslim (no. 2426).

(821) See: ‘Usul an–Nitham al–Ijtima’i fil–Islam’ (p. 139).

(822) Reported by al–Bukhari (no. 6788) and Muslim (no. 2648).

Section Five: The Core Ethical Values of Islam and the Role of Ethics in Creating Social Cohesion

Introduction
Mention of the status and excellence of good character in Islam has preceded in chapter one. This section, as well as reiterating that which has preceded, shall introduce and discuss the role of ethics in creating social cohesion. Additionally, the Islamic commands and prohibitions and their positive impacts upon society, such as by encouraging motivation and self–regulation in individuals, shall be covered. Lastly, the core ethical values of Islam and the origins of good character will be explored.

Firstly: The Role of Ethics in Creating Social Cohesion
A society cannot function adequately until the majority of its members adhere to some form of ethical code in their interactions and dealings. Ethics aims to purify the human soul, to accustom it to moral excellence and to deter it from vice.

When ethics become widespread within society, the souls of individuals are elevated and purified. This has tangible effects such as the achievement of peace and stability, societal harmony and behaviour of high moral standards, which in turn lead to guidance, success, wisdom, prosperity and impartiality.

Ethics governs the behaviour of people and regulates their conduct which is from the reasons it is assigned such great importance in Islam. An Islamic education has a more profound impact on the soul than other education systems in which people commonly surrender to their desires. However, individuals fortified with an Islamic education are able to resist such desires.

A person who believes that they are going to stand in front of their Lord and that He will take them to account and recompense them for their wrongdoings is incomparable to a person who has nothing to prevent them from committing crime except the fear of being caught and punished. Accordingly, adherence to a moral code is one of the essential elements of the Islamic social system and among the significant contributing factors to the formation of an ordered social body.(823)

The embodiment of perfect character was The Prophet –peace be upon him–, the one whom Allah said in address to:
(وَإِنَّكَ لَعَلَىٰ خُلُقٍ عَظِيمٖ)
Sura Noon; (68): 4
(Meaning: And indeed, you are of a great moral character.)

His character was described by Aisha, his wife, in her statement:

“His character was the Quran”(824), meaning he used to implement it, act in accordance with it, carry out its commands, abstain from its prohibitions, remain within its limits and adorn himself with its qualities to the extent that it became his natural character.(825)

If a person were to analyse any verse of the Quran concerning good character or righteous action, they would be able to find an example of its practical implementation in the Prophetic biography. Thus, the Quran is the source of fine character while Prophet Muhammad –peace be upon him– was the personification of such character. All of the moral values of Islam can be summed up by the term ‘God–consciousness’.

which is why Allah –the Almighty– says:
(إِنَّ أَكْرَمَكُمْ عِندَ اللَّهِ أَتْقَٰاكُمْۚ)
Sura al–Hujurat; (49): 13
(Meaning: Indeed, the most noble of you in the sight of Allah are the most God–conscious from among you. Verily, Allah is All–Knowing, All–Aware.)

The saying of the Prophet:
“Indeed I have been sent to perfect good character.”(826)

Islam’s call to morality is centred around various fundamental principles, including: the priority given to ethics and the cultivation of souls upon guidance which is recognisable by the sound intellect of a person.

Islam differs from other religions and philosophies in that it is established on a comprehensive set of true values as opposed to imagined values. It is unique in its universality, such that all people –rulers, subjects and the faithful– are bound by good character in their interactions with each other, the community of Muslims at large, other nations and societies and even in relation to animals whose purpose is their service.(827)

The following subsection offers a brief look into the Islamic commandments and prohibitions and reveals the improvement they cause in individuals and society in their behaviour and conduct.

Secondly: The Commandments and Prohibitions of Islam
A brief glance into the commandments and prohibitions of Islam shows that it is a religion of virtue, sublimity, bliss and success. They reflect the detailed nature of Islam by describing how people should be in relation to themselves as well as others such as their families, neighbours, members of the same faith group, and humanity at large.

It should be noted that the woeful behaviour of some Muslims comes as a result of them succumbing to temptation and is not representative of the reality of their religion.

The merits of Islam are manifested by the commandments and prohibitions of Islam, which include(828):
1. Islamic commandments:
The Islamic commandments regulate and facilitate all aspects of everyday life in a detailed and precise manner and are expressed in the most eloquent and intelligible of ways. Those who transgress them are threatened with severe consequences, while those who adhere to them are promised great reward.

The following is a non–exhaustive list of Islamic commandments:
I – Islam commands with self–respect. It orders a people not to be animalistic in nature, not to be slaves to their desires and not to glorify or submit to other than God.

II – Islam commands people to be active, productive members of society. It prevents them from following others blindly and from being reliant on others.

III – Islam commands people make good use of their faculties, such as intellect and physical ability, by performing acts beneficial to them in this worldly life and in the hereafter.

IV – Islam commands with strict monotheism and correct belief, both of which are readily accepted by sound hearts and intellects. The Islamic creed causes a person to attain nobility and respectability and it allows a person to feel a sense of self–esteem and to taste the sweetness of true faith.

V – Islam commands people to conceal the faults of fellow Muslims and to abstain from doubtful matters.

VI – Islam commands people to aid people, to serve them and to alleviate their suffering.

VII – Islam commands people to initiate greetings with fellow Muslims, to defend the honour of fellow Muslims in their absence, and to prevent fellow Muslims from oppression.

VIII – Islam commands with visiting the sick, accompanying funerals, visiting graveyards and supplicating on behalf of fellow Muslims.

IX – Islam commands with impartiality, even against a person’s own self, and with loving for fellow Muslims that which one loves for themselves.

X – Islam commands people to seek livelihoods, to have a sense of self–worth and to avoid situations wherein they are subjected to humiliation and shame.

XI – Islam commands people to treat other created beings with mercy and compassion, to care for them, to look after them, to serve them, to benefit them and to protect them from harm.

XII – Islam commands with obedience of parents, maintenance of kinship relations, neighbourliness, and showing gentleness to animals.

XIII– Islam commands with fidelity to friends and with good treatment of one’s spouse and children.

XIV– Islam commands with modesty, forbearance, generosity, hospitality, bravery and jealousy for the truth.

XV – Islam commands with decency, determination, wisdom and with maintaining a good appearance.

XVI – Islam commands with integrity, justice, patience, keeping of promises, having good thoughts of others and taking the initiative to do good.

XVII – Islam commands with chastity, rectitude, nobility and decency.

XVIII – Islam commands people to show gratitude to God; to love Him; to fear Him; to have hope in Him; to devote oneself to Him; and to have reliance upon Him.

These are some of the great and beautiful Islamic values, of which there are many more.(829)

2. Islamic prohibitions:
Among the merits of Islam is its prohibitions, which prevent a Muslim from evil and cause them to be mindful of the consequences of misdeeds.

These prohibitions include:
I – Islam prohibits disbelief, immorality, sin and succumbing to temptation.

II – Islam prohibits pride, hatred, narcissism, self–adulation, envy and schadenfreude.

III– Islam prohibits mistrust, pessimism, despair, miserliness, parsimony, extravagance and profligacy.

IV – Islam prohibits laziness, dispiritedness, cowardice, weakness, idleness, haste, harshness, immodesty, impatience, incapacity, anger, recklessness and exasperation.

V – Islam prohibits stubbornness and hard–heartedness which prevents a person from helping those in need.

VI – Islam prohibits backbiting, which means: to speak about a person in their absence regarding that which they dislike; and malicious gossip, which means: to relay reports about other people in order to cause discord.

VII– Islam prohibits useless speech, divulging secrets, ridiculing people and mockery.

VIII – Islam prohibits profanity, obscenity, curses, insults and name–calling.

IX – Islam prohibits excessive disputation, contention, and obscene jokes which lead to immorality or blasphemy.

X –  Islam prohibits a person from speaking about that which does not concern them.

XI – Islam prohibits the concealment of testimony, false testimony, false accusations, disrespectful speech regarding the deceased and the concealment of knowledge.

XII –  Islam prohibits indecency, lewdness, boasting and ingratitude.

XIII – Islam prohibits insulting the ancestry of others; claiming to be the child of someone besides one’s own father; refraining from advice; and abandoning the enjoinment of good and the forbiddance of evil.

XIV – Islam prohibits oppression, fraud, deceit, plots, dishonesty and incitement.

XV – Islam prohibits filial disobedience, severance of relations, child neglect and harming one’s neighbours.

XVI – Islam prohibits spying, nosiness and finding faults in others.

XVII – Islam prohibits men from imitating women and vice versa, and it prohibits the disclosure of marital secrets.

XVIII – Islam prohibits the consumption of alcohol, the use of narcotics, and gambling.

XIX – Islam prohibits false advertising, deception, and unlawful expenditure.

XX – Islam prohibits theft; robbery; proposing to a woman who is already engaged; and outbidding the sale of another person after its completion.

XXI – Islam prohibits betrayal of business partners; use of borrowed property for other than that which its owner permitted; and delay or non–payment payment of wages.

XXII – Islam prohibits excessive eating which causes harm.

XXIII – Islam prohibits boycotting, quarrelling, enmity, and ignoring a fellow Muslim for more than three days.

XXIV – Islam prohibits hitting anyone without legal reason, and from alarming people with weapons.

XXV – Islam prohibits fornication, adultery, homosexuality, and unlawful killing of souls.

XXVI – Islam prohibits a judge from accepting gifts or private invites from anyone who did not used to do so prior to their judicial appointment.

XXVII – Islam prohibits bribery, except in the case of a person who is unable to acquire something they are rightfully owed. In this case bribery is permitted provided the rights of any third party are not infringed.

XXVIII – Islam prohibits neglecting people in need, if something can be done to help them.

XXIX – Islam prohibits eavesdropping and watching one’s neighbours without their permission.

XXX – Islam prohibits slander and defamation as well as everything resulting in harm to one’s body or mental health, or to society in general.

The foregoing has been a brief overlook on the commandments and prohibitions of Islam, a detailed review of which would require voluminous writings.(830)

Thirdly: The Core Ethical Values of Islam and the Origins of Good Character
In the previous subsections, the fundamental virtues of Islam have been alluded to in brief. In this subsection, the core ethical values of Islam and the origins of good character will be explored in further detail.

It is to be noticed that these values interlink and are complementary in nature.
1. Patience:
Patience is a vast topic and its excellence, types, status and merits could be discussed indefinitely. In the present context, it shall be referred to in brief with priority being given to those aspects which are commonly overlooked regarding it.

The simplest definition of patience is to restrain oneself from doing something enjoyable or to bring oneself to do something that one dislikes.

This definition includes being patient upon obedience to Allah, patience in keeping away from prohibitions, and patience upon those things which Allah has decreed. The innumerable instances of patience can be categorised under these three types, as will be discussed in what follows.

Patience lies at the core of ethics because, as Ibn ‘Ashur mentions, good character is essentially a matter of restraining oneself from temptation, which, on occasion, can be difficult and requires constant patience and effort.(831)

Furthermore, virtues are morally good qualities which stem from strong will and the prevention of oneself from indulging in excessive temptation. This is why patience is at the core of ethics; forbearance, learning, God–consciousness, courage, justice, chastity, and other virtuous attributes are all forms of patience.

A person who reflects on the core of religion or faith will conclude that they also constitute forms of patience as they require a person to resist temptation and desire.(832)

The excellence of patience can be discussed infinitely; patience and gratitude each constitute half of faith and the Quran is filled with mention of patience. In the Quran, Allah commands with patience, assigns it a lofty status, praises its people and promises them a generous reward.

He –the Almighty– says:
(وَاصْبِرْ وَمَا صَبْرُكَ إِلَّا بِاللَّهِۚ)
Sura an–Nahl; (16): 127
(Meaning: And be patient; your patience is bestowed by none but Allah.)

(وَلَمَن صَبَرَ وَغَفَرَ إِنَّ ذَٰلِكَ لَمِنْ عَزْمِ الْأُمُورِ)
Sura ash–Shuraa; (42): 43
(Meaning: And whoever is patient and forgives – indeed, that is of the matters requiring determination.)

(يَٰٓأَيُّهَا الَّذِينَ ءَامَنُواْ اصْبِرُواْ وَصَابِرُواْ وَرَابِطُواْ وَاتَّقُواْ اللَّهَ لَعَلَّكُمْ تُفْلِحُونَ)
Sura aali–‘Imran; (3): 200
(Meaning: O you who have believed, persevere and endure and remain stationed and fear Allah that you may be successful.)

(وَبَشِّرْ الصَّابِرِينَ)
Sura al–Baqarah; (2): 155
(Meaning: And give glad tidings to the patient.)

Similarly, Prophet Muhammad –peace be upon him– said in the authentic narration: “Whoever perseveres then Allah will grant them patience, and no one is given a gift better or more generous than patience.”(833)

A person fortified with patience is well prepared to succeed in life, to benefit others and to leave a great legacy behind. Conversely, an impatient person is destined to failure and leaves a very small mark on the world, if any. A person must have patience, by choice or by compulsion, as there are many instances throughout their lives wherein calamities will befall them, such as illness, loss of property, the death of loved ones, or war and its misfortunes. One who is unaccustomed to patience when confronted with adversity and cannot bear loss will be devastated by the like of such occurrences. Likewise, a person must be patient in the face of temptation and resist their desires which seduce and allure them, and which, if they followed them, would lead them to destruction.

In short, patience is from the best of virtues and from the noblest forms of worship. The best form of patience is being patient upon obedience to Allah and in abstaining from His prohibitions as this causes a person’s worship to be sincere, their religion to be correct and deserving of reward. In contrast, a person who is impatient regarding obedience to Allah will have no chance of attaining piety or rectitude.(834)

2. Propriety:
Al–Jarjani –may Allah have mercy upon him– defined propriety as being: “A state between the two extremes of immorality and prudery which causes a person to conform to the standards of religion and decency.”(835)

Ibn Hazm –may Allah be pleased with him– wrote:
“Propriety is to restrain one’s sight and limbs from those bodies which Allah has made unlawful for a person; anything more than that is degeneration, and anything less which causes a person to deprive themselves of what Allah has made lawful is weakness and impotence.”(836)

Thus, propriety is among the core ethical values of Islam and is considered as being one of the foundations for a healthy society. When implemented, it leads to the existence of individuals and who adorn themselves with modesty and abstain from every form of vice, immorality, lewdness, miserliness, lying, backbiting, tale–carrying and degradation.(837)

3. Self–respect:
Another virtuous characteristic is self–respect, which means to avoid situations in which one is subjected to humiliation. Its opposite is self–abasement, which means to subject oneself to degradation.

Self–respect earns a person prestige and dignity in the eyes of people; it establishes admiration and recognition for them in the hearts of people and it grants them acceptance among distinguished people.

This virtuous characteristic also has beneficial consequences in society; a respectable nation aims to be independent of others and is extremely wary of forming alliances with anyone who may undermine their honour or oppress them.(838)

4. Generosity:
Generosity is based on the awareness that wealth has some value and therefore must not be squandered, but also that virtue demands it is spent on worthy causes without regret. It can be defined as spending wealth on deserving causes.

A person who mindlessly spends their wealth on fulfilling their desires is thriftless whereas a person who refuses to spend their wealth on deserving causes is miserly. Between these two extremes lies the middle ground of moderation.

Generosity is based on mercy and on having little interest in the amassing of wealth. It is thus linked to other virtuous qualities that cause high aspirations in a person. Generous people are often forgiving, tolerant, unbiased and humble; they take the initiative to give others the rights they owe to them; they are just in their judgements; they do not accept bribes, nor do they give preference to the rich and powerful over the weak and marginalised. In addition, truly generous people are courageous and self–respecting, contrary to those whose ardent desire for the pleasures of this worldly life causes them to give up their honour and courage.

By means of generosity, a nation can achieve sovereignty which enables it to maintain its religion; preserve its unity; guard its values; protect its reputation; defend its good name; safeguard its borders and further advance in research and the various fields of knowledge.

All of these noble goals can only be achieved through the monetary contributions of generous individuals.(839)

5. Courage:
This meritorious characteristic causes a person to have self–respect; to refuse injustice; to adopt virtuous traits; to spend and to show generosity, which, in essence, is a form of courage as it consists of a person parting with something dear to them. Similarly, this merit enables a person to supress their anger and be forbearing because through their strong character and courage they are able to practice self–restraint and not fall into foolish or irrational behaviour.(840) This meaning is indicated by the saying of Prophet Muhammad: “The strong person is not the one who overcomes people by way of strength, rather the strong person is the one who controls their anger.”(841)

Courage is more inclusive than a physical show of bravery on the battlefield; it includes moral courage such as confidence in expression of opinion, firmness upon the truth, acknowledgement of mistakes and returning to that which is correct when it is made clear.(842)

6. Fidelity:
Al–Jarjani defined fidelity as: “Showing loyalty to one’s friends and to be a source of comfort for them.”(843)

Prophet Muhammad –peace be upon him– was the best embodiment of fidelity and the most loyal of people. His loyalty to his late wife, Khadijah –may Allah be pleased with her–, is from the best examples of this virtuous trait. After her passing, despite The Prophet –peace be upon him– remarrying other beautiful, noble women such as Aisha, he did not forget Khadijah or her excellence. He would constantly reminisce about her early conversion to Islam and about her munificent donations for the sake of Allah and he would frequently praise and make mention of her.

The fidelity of Prophet Muhammad –peace be upon him– was such that he even maintained good relations with Khadijah’s friends after her passing. On occasion, he would slaughter a sheep and would cut it up before having it delivered to her friends. He would also remind them of the goodness of Khadijah by sending them alms and gifts similar to those which she used to give to them during her lifetime. Her friends would thus be reminded of her and would invoke Allah’s mercy upon her and recall her kindness and generosity with fondness.

Prophet Muhammad –peace be upon him– would mention Khadijah –may Allah be pleased with her– so often that Aisha would become jealous, despite the fact that she passed away three years prior to him remarrying.

In a narration referenced by the two canonical collections of Prophetic traditions, Aisha –may Allah be pleased with her– states:
“Never did I feel more jealous of a woman than Khadijah, due to the frequency with which the Messenger of Allah –peace be upon him– would mention her.”

She added:
“He married me three years after her passing, and his Lord –the Mighty and Majestic– commanded Gabriel –peace be upon him– to give her the glad tidings of a jewelled palace in Paradise.”(844)

In a variant narration, Aisha –may Allah be pleased with her– said:
“Never did I feel more jealous of a woman than Khadijah, although I have never seen her, however The Prophet –peace be upon him– would mention her often and he would sometimes slaughter a sheep and cut it up to send to Khadijah’s friends. I would say: ‘It is as if there are no women in this world except Khadijah!’ He would reply: “Khadijah used to be like this and like that, and I had children from her.”(845)

A further narration on the authority of Aisha –may Allah be pleased with her– mentions:
“Halah bint Khuwaylid, Khadijah’s sister, came to visit and sought permission to enter. Her voice reminded the Messenger of Allah –peace be upon him– of Khadijah which brought him happiness, so he said: ‘O Allah, it is Halah!’” Aisha said: “I became jealous.”(846)

These are some of the core values of Islam, details of which can be found in the Quran and the Prophetic narrations, as well as their exegeses.

----------------------------------------------------

(823) See: ‘Ihya• ‘Ulum ad–Din’ (3/55–6); ‘Usul an–Nitham al–Ijtima’i fil–Islam’ (pp. 116–9); & ‘ad–Da’wah Ila al–Islah’ (pp. 192–3).

(824) Reported by Muslim (no. 746).

(825) See: ‘Jami’ al–Ulum wal–Hikam’ (2/99).

(826) Reported by Ahmad (no. 8939); al–Albani commented on it in ‘Sahih al–Jami’ (no. 2349) and said: ‘Authentic’.

(827) See: ‘Usul an–Nitham al–Ijtima’i fil–Islam’ (pp. 121–3).

(828) See: ‘Ta’rif ‘Aam bi Deen al–Islam al–Musamma: Rasa•il as–Salam wa Rusul al–Islam’ of Shaikh Yusuf ad–Dajawi (pp. 71–4).

(829) See: ‘Ta’rif ‘Aam bi Deen al–Islam’ (pp. 74–5); & ‘at–Tariq Ila al–Islam’ (pp. 41–3).

(830) See ‘Ta’rif ‘Aam bi Deen al–Islam’ (pp. 75–9); & ‘at–Tariq Ila al–Islam’ (pp. 43–5).

(831) See: ‘Tafsir at–Tahrir wat–Tanwir’ (16/460).

(832) See: ‘Tafsir at–Tahrir wat–Tanwir’ (1/352).

(833) Reported by al–Bukhari (no. 1400) and Muslim (no. 1053).

(834) See: ‘Adab ad–Dunya wad–Deen’ of al–Maawardi (1/360).

(835) See: ‘at–Ta’rifat’ of al–Jarjani (p. 151).

(836) See: ‘al–Akhlaq wa as–Siyar fi Mudawat an–Nufus’ of Ibn Hazm (p. 32).

(837) See: ‘Madarij as–Salikin’ of Ibn Al–Qayyim (2/294).

(838) See: ‘Rasa•il al–Islah’ (1/124–6).

(839) See: ‘al–Hidayah al–Islamiyyah’ (pp. 84–92).

(840) See: ‘Madarij as–Salikin’ (3/394).

(841) Reported by al–Bukhari (no. 6114) and Muslim (no. 2609).

(842) See: ‘Rasa•il al–Islah’ (1/77–8).

(843) See: ‘at–Ta’rifat’ (p. 253).

(844) Reported by al–Bukhari (no. 3817) and Muslim (no. 2435).

(845) Reported by al–Bukhari (no. 3818) and Muslim (no. 2435).

(846) Reported by al–Bukhari (no. 3821) and Muslim (no. 2437).

Section Six: Friendship and Companionship in Islam and the Relationship between Muslims and non–Muslims
Firstly: Friendship and Companionship in Islam
Friendship is a treasured, delightful feeling of affection that has many benefits. Islam places great emphasis on true friendship by advocating it and laying down guidelines to ensure its continuity between people and by assigning virtue to it.

The value of friendship in Islam can be summarised as follows:
1. Islam instructs a person to love for their fellow Muslims that which they love for themselves and considers this quality to be indicative of true faith and from the signs of the perfection of one’s faith. The Prophet –peace be upon him– said: “None of you will truly believe until you love for your brother that which you love for yourselves.”(847)

2. Islam advises a person to give preference to others over themselves, even if they are in a state of privation, i.e. dire need.

This is the best proof of friendship, and Allah praises the original residents of Madinah for this reason in His saying:
 (وَالَّذِينَ تَبَوَّءُو الدَّارَ وَالْإِيمَانَ مِن قَبْلِهِمْ يُحِبُّونَ مَنْ هَاجَرَ إِلَيْهِمْ وَلَا يَجِدُونَ فِي صُدُورِهِمْ حَاجَةً مِّمَّآ أُوتُواْ وَيُؤْثِرُونَ عَلَىٰٓ أَنفُسِهِمْ وَلَوْ كَانَ بِهِمْ خَصَاصَةٞۚ وَمَن يُوقَ شُحَّ نَفْسِهِ فَأُوْلَٰٓئِكَ هُمُ الْمُفْلِحُونَ)
Sura al–Hashr; (59): 9
(Meaning: And those who were settled in the city of Madinah and had adopted the faith before them love those who emigrated to them and find not any jealousy in their breasts for that which the emigrants were given but instead give them preference over themselves, even though they are in privation. And whoever is protected from the stinginess of his soul – it is those who will be the successful.)

Shaikh ‘Abdur–Rahman as–Sa’di –may Allah have mercy upon him– said in exegesis of the foregoing verse:
“One of the merits possessed by the original residents of Madinah that they were unparalleled in is their selflessness. This is the best form of generosity and it means to have more concern for the needs of others than one’s own needs. It includes giving others one’s own property, despite a person being in dire need of it. Such a quality stems from excellent character and from loving Allah more than one’s own passions. The reason for the revelation of this verse was that one of the original residents of Madinah chose to feed his guests while he and his children slept hungry. Selflessness, which is praiseworthy, is the opposite of selfishness, which is reprehensible. Selfishness stems from stinginess and miserliness which selflessness protects a person from, just as Allah says: ‘And whoever is protected from the stinginess of his soul – it is those who will be the successful.’”(848)

3. Islam advises with good company and warns against bad company. The Prophet –peace be upon him– expresses this in his saying:
“The good companion and the bad companion are similar to the musk seller and the blacksmith, respectively. The musk seller, even if he does not sell to you or offer you some, enables you at least enjoy a pleasant smell, while the blacksmith, even if he does not burn your clothes, will cause you to endure foul smell of his forge.”(849)

4. True friendship extends beyond death:
On the Day of Resurrection, while the rest of the people will disown their friends, the friendships of the God–fearing believers will persist.

Allah –the Mighty and Majestic– says:
(الْأَخِلَّآءُ يَوْمَئِذِۢ بَعْضُهُمْ لِبَعْضٍ عَدُوٌّ إِلَّا الْمُتَّقِينَ)
Sura az–Zukhruf; (43): 67
(Meaning: Close friends on that Day will be foes to each other, except for the righteous.)

Everyone whose affiliation was based on disbelief, denial and transgression in the worldly life shall be enemies one to another on that Day; all friendships that are not for the sake of Allah in this world will turn into enmity on the Day of Resurrection. However, those friendships which were for the sake of Allah, the Eternal, shall likewise remain for eternity.(850)

5. Sincere friendship will be rewarded generously by Allah:
The Prophet –peace be upon him– said: “Seven types of people will be shaded by Allah in His shade on the Day there is no shade but His shade” and he mentioned amongst them: “Two people who love and meet each other for the sake of Allah in this world, until death does them part.”(851)

These are some of the virtues of friendship in Islam.

Secondly: The Relationship between Muslims and non–Muslims
The relationship between Muslims and non–Muslims, such as disbelievers and polytheists, is based on kindness, goodness, amiability, justice and well–wishing.

Allah –the Almighty– said:
(لَّا يَنْهَاكُمُ اللَّهُ عَنِ الَّذِينَ لَمْ يُقَٰاتِلُوكُمْ فِي الدِّينِ وَلَمْ يُخْرِجُوكُم مِّن دِيَارِكُمْ أَن تَبَرُّوهُمْ وَتُقْسِطُوٓاْ إِلَيْهِمْ إِنَّ اللَّهَ يُحِبُّ الْمُقْسِطِينَ)
Sura al–Mumtahanah; (60): 8
(Meaning: Allah does not forbid you to deal justly and kindly with those who fought not against you on account of religion and did not drive you out of your homes – from being righteous toward them and acting justly toward them. Verily, Allah loves those who deal with equity.)

Shaikh ‘Abdur–Rahman as–Sa’di –may Allah have mercy upon him– wrote in exegesis of the foregoing verse:
“It means that Allah does not forbid you from goodness, amiability, reciprocation or justice with the polytheists in order that they do not fight you on account of your religion or drive you out from your homes. There is no blame on you for maintaining good relations with them in this case; it is not prohibited nor is it harmful.”(852)

This understanding was what led the noble companion ‘Abdullah bin ‘Amr bin al–‘Aas –may Allah be pleased with him and his father–ask his family thrice if they had given a portion of a sheep he had slaughtered to their Jewish neighbours. He then said: “I heard The Prophet –peace be upon him– say: “Gabriel enjoined me with good treatment of neighbours to the extent I thought he would assign them as heirs.””(853) ‘Abdullah understood this Prophetic tradition to mean good treatment of Muslim and non–Muslim neighbours alike.

The People of the Book lived alongside Muslims in safety and security in light of this piece of Quranic guidance, without fearing for their lives, their dignity or their property. The good and fair treatment they received from the Muslims they had not even experienced from their own families and peoples, which is why many of them came to love Islam and chose to convert. This is perfectly highlighted by the Prophetic biography which illustrates how the different categories of non–Muslims should be treated.  

In the following paragraphs, the tolerance and justice of Islam will be demonstrated in view of the relationship between Muslims and the various categories of non–Muslims:
1. Behaviour towards hypocrites:
Hypocrites are those who pretend to be Muslims while concealing their disbelief. Prophet Muhammad –peace be upon him– would treat them just as he would treat the Muslims and would overlook their misdemeanours, show them mercy, kindness, gentleness and benevolence. Thus, he would not probe into their inward beliefs but instead would treat them in accordance with that which they displayed outwardly.

One of the best examples of this is the story of the leader of the hypocrites, ‘Abdullah bin Ubayy bin Salul, who greatly harmed Prophet Muhammad –peace be upon him– and his family by slandering Aisha –may Allah be pleased with her–. ‘Abdullah bin Ubayy bin Salul and his supporters were the ones who betrayed the Messenger of Allah –peace be upon him– in his most urgent moment, by turning their backs on the battlefield and refusing to participate in the battle of Uhud.

The Quran informs us of his saying:
(لَئِن رَّجَعْنَآ إِلَى الْمَدِينَةِ لَيُخْرِجَنَّ الْأَعَزُّ مِنْهَا الْأَذَلَّ)
Sura al–Munafiqun; (63): 8
(Meaning: “If we return to Madinah, indeed the mightier will expel therefrom the abject.”)

He was notoriously involved in many disgraceful and scandalous situations. Despite this, when he died, his son asked The Prophet –peace be upon him– for his shirt so that he could shroud his father in it, hoping that it may expiate his father’s wrongdoings. The Prophet –peace be upon him– agreed to give it to him and thus his shirt served as a shroud for the leader of the hypocrites. Is it possible to imagine a more magnanimous act than this?

The Prophet –peace be upon him– went as far as to visit his grave in order to pray over him. Upon witnessing this, ‘Umar bin al–Khattab rushed over to him and said:
“Are you going to pray over the son of Ubayy and he was the one who said such–and–such on the day of such–and–such?!” ‘Umar continued to mention his misdeeds, but the Messenger of Allah –peace be upon him– simply smiled and said: “Stand back O ‘Umar.” When ‘Umar persisted, The Prophet –peace be upon him– said: “I was given a choice and I have chosen. Had I known that Allah would have forgiven him if I sought forgiveness on his behalf more than seventy times, then I would have done so.”

He said this in reference to the saying of Allah –the Almighty– regarding the hypocrites:
(اسْتَغْفِرْ لَهُمْ أَوْ لَا تَسْتَغْفِرْ لَهُمْ)
Sura at–Tawbah; (9): 80
(Meaning: Ask forgiveness for them, or do not ask forgiveness for them.)

The merciful nature of Prophet Muhammad –peace be upon him– led him to seek forgiveness on behalf of his enemies rather than choosing not to do so.

At the end of the narration, ‘Umar bin al–Khattab says:
“The Messenger of Allah –peace be upon him– prayed over him before departing.

Soon afterwards, the following two verses of the Chapter of Disavowal were revealed:
(وَلَا تُصَلِّ عَلَىٰٓ أَحَدٍ مِّنْهُم مَّاتَ أَبَدًا وَلَا تَقُمْ عَلَىٰ قَبْرِهِ إِنَّهُمْ كَفَرُواْ بِاللَّهِ وَرَسُولِهِ وَمَاتُواْ وَهُمْ فَٰاسِقُونَ)
Sura at–Tawbah; (9): 84
(Meaning: And do not pray over any of them who has died, ever, or stand at his grave. Indeed, they disbelieved in Allah and His Messenger and died while they were defiantly disobedient.)”

‘Umar added:
“Later, I was shocked at my daring before the Messenger of Allah –peace be upon him– on that day; Allah and His Messenger know best.”(854)

The aforementioned incidents were in relation to the chief of the hypocrites, so one can imagine how he was with those who were below him in rank.

2. Behaviour towards peaceful non–Muslims:
Care must be taken to guide them; they must be treated courteously and fairly and none of their rights can be violated.

They must be treated in accordance with the saying of Allah –the Almighty–:
(لَّا يَنْهَاكُمُ اللَّهُ عَنِ الَّذِينَ لَمْ يُقَٰاتِلُوكُمْ فِي الدِّينِ وَلَمْ يُخْرِجُوكُم مِّن دِيَارِكُمْ أَن تَبَرُّوهُمْ وَتُقْسِطُوٓاْ إِلَيْهِمْ إِنَّ اللَّهَ يُحِبُّ الْمُقْسِطِينَ)
Sura al–Mumtahanah; (60): 8
(Meaning: Allah does not forbid you from those who do not fight you because of religion and do not expel you from your homes – from being righteous toward them and acting justly toward them. Indeed, Allah loves those who act justly.)

Many examples of this are to be found in the Prophetic biography, including the narration referenced in al–Bukhari’s authentic collection of Prophetic traditions, on the authority of Anas –may Allah be pleased with him– who said: “A Jewish boy who used to serve The Prophet –peace be upon him– fell ill, so The Prophet –peace be upon him– went to visit him. He sat near his head and said to him: “Embrace Islam.” The boy looked to his father who was also present. His father instructed him to obey Abul–Qasim and so the son embraced Islam. The Prophet –peace be upon him– came out from their home saying: “All praise is due to Allah Who saved him from the Fire.”(855)

The fine treatment showed by The Prophet –peace be upon him– to those who made treaties with him and to those who agreed to live under the banner of Islam is one of the clearest proofs of the tolerance of Islam and its promotion of freedom and peace. People of different faiths and from different walks of life are all able to coexist without conflict under the banner of Islam.

Just Muslim rulers maintained the Prophetic tradition of dealing with non–Muslim minorities living under the Islamic state. They would address them specifically in their advices and they would instruct their representatives to show them equity of treatment. One instance of this is the letter ‘Umar bin al–Khattab sent to ‘Amr bin al–‘Aas, who was the governor of Egypt at the time. In it, he wrote: “You have under your responsibility non–Muslim subjects and people whom you share treaties with, and the Messenger of Allah enjoined us with their care.”(856)

‘Umar also reminded him with the saying of the Prophet:
“Whoever oppresses a non–Muslim protected by a treaty or overworks them will find me an adversary on the Day of Resurrection.”(857)

He added:
“Beware, O ‘Amr, lest the Messenger of Allah –peace be upon him– be an adversary to you, for indeed, whoever is an adversary to him will be defeated.”(858)

Another authentic narration in this regard is the saying of the Prophet:
“Whoever defames a non–Muslim living under a Muslim state will be punished with whips of fire on the Day of Resurrection.”(859)

Compare the sanctity Islam grants to treaties with the way which some leaders, after agreeing to respect the rights of a Muslim nation and signing treaties, do not hesitate to take the lives and property of their citizens and even attempt to force people to abjure their faith. Then, after committing all of these crimes, they become angry when they are accused of being enemies of humanity and suppressors of freedom.

The illustrious jurists of Islam fully comprehended the status and rights of non–Muslims living under Islamic rule. They deduced rulings from the primary sources of Islam wherein Muslims and non–Muslims are on equal terms. For example, they permit Muslims to bequeath or endow part of their wealth to non–Muslim living under Islamic rule. Similarly, they say that the narration of the Prophet: “None of you should outbid the sale of another person after its completion, nor should you propose to a woman who is already engaged”(860) refers to Muslims as well as non–Muslims living under Islamic rule: these actions are impermissible for both of these categories of people.

Moreover, when the jurists discuss societal life, they draw attention to the rights of non–Muslim subjects living under Islamic rule and recommend with showing them gentleness, enduring their harm, protecting their property in their absence and defending them against anyone who attempts to harm them.(861)

Shihab al–Din al–Qarafi wrote in his book ‘Al–Furuq’:
“Treaties with non–Muslim citizens impose duties upon us (as Muslims) because they are our neighbours, under our protection and under the responsibility of Allah, His Messenger and the religion of Islam. Whoever transgresses against them by merely insulting them, or by slandering them, or by harming them in any way, or aids another person in doing so, has subverted the responsibility of Allah, His Messenger and the religion of Islam.

Ibn Hazm mentions in ‘Maratib al–Ijma’’:
“The Muslim scholars are in unanimous agreement that non–Muslims living under Islamic rule must be guarded if they are attacked on Muslim soil. Our duty to fight by all available means in order to protect them, even if it is necessary that we die while defending those who are under the responsibility of Allah and His Messenger. Surrendering them to the enemy would mean a breach of the treaty between us and them.”(862)

3. Behaviour towards hostile non–Muslims:
The Prophet –peace be upon him– was wary and vigilant towards this category of people. He would repel them in the wisest and most just of ways; he treated them with gentleness if the circumstances were right, but if their harm was excessive and gentleness was not of any benefit, he was harsh and severe towards them.(863)

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(847) Reported by al–Bukhari (no. 13) and Muslim (no. 45).

(848) See: ‘Tafsir as–Sa’di’ (p. 85).

(849) Reported by al–Bukhari (nos. 237, 2101, 5534) and Muslim (no. 1876).

(850) See: ‘Tafsir as–Sa’di’ (p. 769).

(851) Reported by al–Bukhari (no. 660, 1423) and Muslim (no. 1031).

(852) See: ‘Tafsir as–Sa’di’ (p. 8576).

(853) Reported by Ahmad (2/160). Also reported by al–Bukhari in ‘al–Adab al–Mufrad’ (no. 105), Abu Dawud (no. 5112) and at–Tirmithi (no. 943) who said regarding it: ‘Good, unique.’

(854) Reported by Sahih al–Bukhari (no. 1366).

(855) Reported by al–Bukhari (no. 1356).

(856) See: ‘Kanz al–A’mal’ of al–Hindi (no. 14304) & ‘Jami’ al–Ahadith’ of as–Suyuti (28/211).

(857) Reported by Abu Dawud in his ‘Sunan’ (no. 3052) with the wording: “Beware, if anyone wrongs a non–Muslim protected by a treaty, or oppresses them, or overworks them, or takes something from them without their consent, then I shall plead on their behalf on the Day of Resurrection.”

(858) See: ‘Kanz al–A’mal’ (no. 14304) & ‘Sunan Abi Dawud’ (no. 3052).

(859) Reported by at–Tabarani in ‘al–Kabir’ (no. 135).

(860) Reported by Muslim (no. 1412).

(861) See: ‘Rasa•il al–Islah’ of Shaikh Muhammad al–Khidr Husayn (pp. 120–2) & ‘Muhammadun Rasulullahi wa Khatam an–Nabiyyin’ (p. 103).

(862) See: ‘al–Furuq’ of al–Qarafi (3/14); ‘Ahl ath–Thimma wal–Wilayat al–‘Aammah fi al–Fiqh al–Islami’ of Namir Muhammad al–Khalil Namir (pp. 127–61); ‘Ahl ath–Thimma fi al–Hadarah al–Islamiyyah’ of Hasan al–Mimmi (pp. 101–5) & ‘Huquq Ghayr al–Muslimin fi ad–Dawlah al–Islamiyyah’ of Dr. ‘Ali bin ‘Abdur–Rahman at–Tayyar.

(863) See: ‘Muhammadun Rasulullahi wa Khaatam an–Nabiyyin’ (p. 103).