Chapter Three: Islam, Peace, Coexistence, Tolerance, Compulsion, Violence & Terrorism

 Chapter Three: Islam, Peace, Coexistence, Tolerance, Compulsion, Violence & Terrorism
Introduction  
Section One: Islam & the Preservation of World Peace
Section Two: Islam, Coexistence & Tolerance
Section Three: Islam & Compulsion
Section Four: Islam & Violence
Section Five: Jihad in Islam
Section Six: The Islamic Perspective on Terrorism

Introduction
The previous chapter contained some allusions to these topics; however, this current chapter will further explore certain current affairs which are popular topics of debate. Many people are unaware of the Islamic perspective on these issues due to their ignorance of Islam and its original sources which dispel misconceptions about these subjects. Such people do not know of its glorious history which paints an accurate picture of the just, merciful and tolerant nature of Muslims.

It should be noted that each of the topics discussed in this chapter are closely related and interdependent.

Section One: Islam’s Promotion of World Peace
Islam, as is well–known and as has preceded, is a religion of peace, good, justice and beneficence. This is true even in times of war, which may occasionally occur based on justifiable reasons. In times of peace, this is all the more apparent.

Islam strives to achieve peace and to allow people to live in freedom, security and tranquility.

as is proven by the following points:
Firstly: The word ‘peace’ is from the most commonly occurring words in Islamic legislation which is indicative of the fact it is a religion of peace and good.

Examples from the Quran and the Prophetic tradition include the following:
1. ‘The Giver of Peace’ is from the names of Allah the Almighty.
Allah says in the Quran:
(هُوَ اللَّهُ الَّذِي لَآ إِلَهَ إِلَّا هُوَ الْمَلِكُ الْقُدُّوسُ السَّلَامُ...)
Sura al–Hashr; (59):23
(Meaning: He is Allaah, The One Whom none has the right to be worshipped except He. The King; The Holy; The Giver of Peace.)

2. The Arabic word for peace originates from the root word meaning ‘submission’. Peace and submission are also both alternative names for the religion of Islam.

Allah the Almighty says:
(يَآأَيُّهَا الَّذِينَ ءَامَنُواْ ادْخُلُواْ فِي السِّلْمِ كَآفَّةً)
Sura al–Baqarah; (2):208
(Meaning: O you who believe! Enter completely into submission.) Submission in this context refers to the religion of Islam.(1045)

Allah also says:
(وَلَا تَقُولُواْ لِمَنْ أَلْقَىٓ إِلَيْكُمُ السَّلَامَ لَسْتَ مُؤْمِنًا)
Sura an–Nisa•; (4):94
(Meaning: And do not say to one who gives you greetings of peace: “You are not a believer”.)

Ash–Shawkani –may Allah have mercy upon him– said in exegesis of the foregoing verse:
“Submission and peace signify compliance, and it is said that they have the same meaning as the word Islam.”(1046)

3. Prophet Muhammad –peace be upon him– encouraged believers to spread the greeting of peace and explained that it is from the most effective ways of achieving harmony and being granted admission to Paradise. Abu Hurairah relates the saying of Prophet Muhammad –peace be upon him–: “You will not enter Paradise until you have faith, and you will not have faith until you have mutual love. Shall I not inform you of something which, if you do it, will cause you to have mutual love for one another? Spread the greeting of peace between yourselves.”(1047)

4. The best greeting between Muslims is that of peace, i.e. that the person initiating the greeting says: ‘May peace be with you’, or ‘May the peace and mercy of Allah be with you.’ A further extended form is ‘May the peace, mercy, and blessings of Allah be with you.)

These greetings are responded to by saying:
‘And with you too’, or ‘And may peace be upon you too’. It is also possible to reply by saying: ‘And may the peace and mercy of Allah be with you too’ or ‘And may the peace, mercy and blessings of Allah be with you too’.

An–Nawawi –may Allah have mercy upon him– writes:
“It is preferable that the one who initiates greetings uses the plural form, i.e. ‘May the peace, mercy and blessings of Allah be with you all’ even if they are only addressing a single person. The responder should reply with the preposition ‘and’ in the following manner: ‘And may the peace, mercy and blessings of Allah be with all of you too’.(1048)

‘Imran bin Husayn –may Allah be pleased with him and his father– narrates that a man came to the Prophet  and said:
‘May peace be with you’. The Prophet  replied to his greeting and said: “Ten”. Then another man came and greeted the Prophet  by saying: ‘May the peace and mercy of Allah be with you’. The Prophet  responded to his greeting also and said: “Twenty”. Then a third man came and greeted the Prophet  by saying: ‘May the peace, mercy, and blessings of Allah be with you’, so the Prophet replied and said: “Thirty”.(1049) This narration indicates that the longer the greeting, the greater the reward.

Scholars have discussed the etiquette of greeting and detailed how to initiate and respond to the greeting of peace in Islam. For example, they mention a rider must greet a pedestrian, a pedestrian must greet a person who is sitting, and a smaller group of people must greet a larger group of people. They also specify the recommendation of giving greetings every time people meet, even if it be frequently, and the recommendation of giving greetings upon arriving home, as well as initiating greetings with children and with anyone who is departing from a gathering or leaving a group of friends. There are many other rulings associated with greetings which indicate the importance of giving the greeting of peace in the religion of peace, Islam.(1050)

5. The greeting of Muslims in Paradise will be that of peace.
Allah the Almighty says:
(وَتَحِيَّتُهُمْ فِيهَا سَلَامٞ)
Sura Yunus; (10):10
(Meaning: And their greeting therein will be: “Peace”.)

Allah also mentions the greeting of the angels to the people of Paradise in His saying:
(سَلَامٌ عَلَيْكُم بِمَا صَبَرْتُمْ فَنِعْمَ عُقْبَى الدَّارِ)
Sura ar–Ra’d; (13):24
(Meaning: Peace be with you for what you have patiently endured. What an excellent reward is this final abode of yours!)

He the Almighty also says:
(ادْخُلُوهَا بِسَلَام ذَالِكَ يَوْمُ الْخُلُودِ)
Sura Qaf; (50):34
(Meaning: Enter it in peace. This is the Day of Eternity.)

6. Allah the Almighty praised the believers who respond to foolishness and ignorance by giving the greeting of peace.

Allah says regarding His beloved servants:
(وَإِذَا خَاطَبَهُمُ الْجَاهِلُونَ قَالُواْ سَلَامًا)
Sura al–Furqan; (25):63
(Meaning: And when the ignorant address them insultingly, they reply with words of peace.)

In another verse, Allah the Almighty says:
(وَإِذَا سَمِعُواْ اللَّغْوَ أَعْرَضُواْ عَنْهُ وَقَالُواْ لَنَآ أَعْمَالُنَا وَلَكُمْ أَعْمَالُكُمْ سَلَامٌ عَلَيْكُمْ لَا نَبْتَغِي الْجَاهِلِينَ)
Sura al–Qasas; (28):55
(Meaning: And when they hear vain speech, they turn away from it and say: “For us are our deeds and for you are your deeds. Peace will be upon you; we seek not the ignorant”.)

7. Prophet Muhammad –peace be upon him–described the true Muslim as someone whom people are spared the harm of in his saying: “A Muslim is one from whose tongue and hand the Muslims are safe.”(1051)

The foregoing has provided a few examples of the significance of peace in Islam.

Secondly: Islam’s preservation of wealth
The Islamic preservation of wealth also helps to promote peace and security. For this reason, Islam enjoins honesty and praises its people, as well as guaranteeing them a pleasant life and admission to Paradise.

Similarly, Islam prohibits stealing and threatens thieves with punishment, the penalty for which is the amputation of the right hand. This fixed punishment was prescribed in order to further deter people who were not sufficiently deterred by the threat of being punished in the Hereafter. Because of it, people living in countries where Islamic law is implemented live carefree of their possessions, and in fact this penalty rarely has to be implemented due to the rarity of theft. In addition to deterring others from theft, the amputation of a thief’s hand also acts as a deterrent for them from reoffending. In this way, the wealth and possessions of people are safe in Islam, allowing for them to live in peace and security.(1052)

It is important to note that amputation of the hand is not the penalty in every instance of theft. The presence of certain prerequisites and the absence of certain statutory grounds for remittance of punishment must be established before the implementation of this penalty. Moreover, each individual case must be looked into independently by a judge who reviews the details of each occurrence and determines the sentence of offenders accordingly.

Thirdly: Islam’s preservation of life
Islam prohibits the unjustified killing of a person and considers it to be a crime punishable by death, which explains the low murder rates in Muslim countries which implement Islamic law. A person who is aware that they will be executed if they murder an innocent person will abstain from doing so, and thus results in a reduction of violent crime.

A family of a murder victim has rights; if they witness the murder of a family member and then see the killer walk free, even after spending time in prison, it is likely to provoke them to take revenge, which would only make matters worse and could cause the situation to spiral out of control. However, if capital punishment is carried out on murderers, the victim’s family are brought some relief by the upholding of their rights.

It is noteworthy to mention that retributive justice is merely one of the options available to the family of a murder victim. They are also offered the concessionary and merciful choices of compensation or pardon, the latter of which is incentivised by Islam.

Allah the Almighty says:
(وَلَكُمْ فِي الْقِصَاصِ حَيَواةٞ يَآأُوْلِي الْأَلْبَابِ لَعَلَّكُمْ تَتَّقُونَ)
Sura al–Baqarah; (2):179
(Meaning: And there is for you in legal retribution saving of life, O people of understanding, that you may become pious.)

However, He also says:
(فَمَنْ عَفَا وَأَصْلَحَ فَأَجْرُهُ عَلَى اللَّهِ)
Sura ash–Shura; (42):40
(Meaning: But whoever pardons and seeks reconciliation, then their reward is with Allah.)(1053)

Capital punishment can only be implemented by a Muslim ruler or a judge who is delegated by the ruler. Furthermore, the presence of certain prerequisites and the absence of certain statutory grounds for remittance of punishment must be established before the implementation of this penalty.

Islam strictly forbids the killing of people and considers all human life to be sacred. This ruling applies to Muslims as well as non–Muslims under the protection of Islamic law.

Allah the Almighty says:
(وَمَن يَقْتُلْ مُؤْمِنًا مُّتَعَمِّدًا فَجَزَآؤُهُۥ جَهَنَّمُ خَالِدًا فِيهَا وَغَضِبَ اللَّهُ عَلَيْهِ وَلَعَنَهُۥ وَأَعَدَّ لَهُۥ عَذَابًا عَظِيمًا)
Sura an–Nisa•; (4):93
(Meaning: And whoever kills a believer intentionally, his recompense is Hell to abide therein, and the wrath and the curse of Allah are upon him, and a great punishment is prepared for him.)

Prophet Muhammad –peace be upon him– said:
“Whoever kills a non–Muslim citizen will never smell the fragrance of Paradise, despite the fact its fragrance can be smelt from a distance of forty years of travelling.”(1054) In another narration, Prophet Muhammad –peace be upon him– says: “I disown whoever grants a person safety then kills them, even if the victim is a disbeliever.”(1055)

It is worth mentioning the story that took place when Prophet Muhammad –peace be upon him– conquered Khaybar, which was a Jewish stronghold north of Medina. A companion named ‘Abdullah bin Suhail –may Allah be pleased with him– visited and, some time later, was found dead in a well within the city. Upon hearing this news, his family went to the Prophet  and accused the Jews of killing him. The Prophet  proceeded to send a message to the Jews to ask them about the murder, to which they replied: ‘Indeed, by God, we did not kill him’. Then the Prophet  asked the family of the victim: “Are you prepared to take a solemn oath establishing your claim to the blood of your companion?” They said: ‘No’. He then asked: “Do you want the Jews to swear an oath for you?” They said: ‘But they are not Muslims’. So the Messenger of Allah paid the blood money himself, which was a hundred she–camels.(1056)

The Jews were strongly suspected to have murdered him and the circumstantial evidence indicated that they killed him: he was found amongst them in one of their wells; Khaybar was a Jewish town and the Muslims were accustomed to Jewish treachery. However, Prophet Muhammad –peace be upon him– did not prosecute them based on it and instead paid the compensation himself, in order to preserve the sacredness of human life and to maintain peaceful and equitable relations with enemies.

Fourthly: Islam forbids self–harm
Islam does not merely prohibit the harming of others, rather it also prohibits a person from harming their own self, which is their most personal possession. Thus, Islam forbids a person from causing harm to their intellect or to their health, and thus the prohibition of ending one’s own life goes without saying.

There is a severe threat associated with suicide in Islam which occurs in the saying of Allah:
(وَلَا تَقْتُلُوٓاْ أَنفُسَكُمْ إِنَّ اللَّهَ كَانَ بِكُمْ رَحِيمًا ٢٩ وَمَن يَفْعَلْ ذَالِكَ عُدْوَانًا وَظُلْمًا فَسَوْفَ نُصْلِيهِ نَارًا وَكَانَ ذَالِكَ عَلَى اللَّهِ يَسِيرًا)
Sura an–Nisa•; (4):29–30
(Meaning: And do not kill yourselves. Indeed, Allah is to you ever Merciful. And whoever does that sinfully and unjustly, then We shall cast him into the Fire, and that is easy for Allah.)

Fifthly: Islam guarantees liberties and regulates them
This is from the greatest demonstrations of peace in Islam. For example, Islam guarantees freedom of thought. Allah has provided humans with the sensory faculties of hearing and sight, as well as hearts, so that they may reflect and think in order to reach the truth. Human beings are commanded to reflect in a healthy, serious manner and they are answerable to Allah for failing to make use of their faculties or for incorrect use of them.

Humans are also granted the freedom of buying, selling, conducting business transactions, travelling, and the like, providing they do not exceed the boundaries which Allah has set, by deception, cheating or corruption.

Islam allows people to enjoy the good and fine things in life, including food, drink, scents and clothes, as long as they do not commit any prohibited acts which cause harm to themselves or others.

However, Islam regulates such liberties and does not leave them absolute, as this would lead to oppression and infringement on the rights of others. Were people granted the freedom to satisfy their desires unrestrictedly, they would lead themselves to demise due to their limited capacities. A person who expends all of their time and energy in enjoyment, entertainment and amusement will be unable to dedicate themselves to serious and beneficial matters. Freedom is not, therefore, that a person succumbs to their passions and desires without worrying about the consequences or lawfulness of their actions. Anyone that lives such a life is bound to have an unfavourable end sooner or later as their wealth dissipates, their strength diminishes, and their health disappears. In the end, they will be left miserable and destitute.

Supposing a person gives free reign to their desires, will they find peace and tranquillity? The answer is: of course not; and this is provable by the modern world of today. Today’s world is a materialist civilisation wherein complete freedom regarding enjoyment and amusement has led to troubles, calamities and physical as well as psychological health problems. Murder, robbery, theft, suicide, stress and sexual perversion are all rife.

Nor is freedom that a person follows their insatiable greed without worrying about its impact on others. Is exploiting the weak, violating their rights and forbidding them from expressing themselves freely, as is the case in some of the greatest countries in the world, truly freedom? Again, the answer is no. True freedom is that brought by Islam. It is a regulated freedom which governs the behaviours of a person as a servant to his Lord and Creator.

The real secret to freedom is that a person clings to Allah while fearing His punishment, longing for His reward, loving Him and hoping in Him in a state of humility and submission. Only then does a person really achieve true freedom from all servitude to created beings, fearing none but their Lord and hoping in Him alone. This is the key to the success and honour of a person.(1057)

The following sections will further the discussion of peace in Islam.

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(1045) See: ‘Tafsir Ibn Kathir’ (1/565) & ‘Tafsir al–Baghawi’ (1/240).

(1046) See: ‘Fath al–Qadir’ of ash–Shawkani (1/501).

(1047) Reported by Muslim (no. 54).

(1048) See: ‘Riyadhus–Salihin’ of an–Nawawi (p. 260).

(1049) Reported by Abu Dawud (no. 5195) and at–Tirmidhi (no. 2689) who said regarding it: ‘It is a good narration’.

(1050) See: ‘Riyadh as–Salihin’ of an–Nawawi (pp. 256–64).

(1051) Reported by al–Bukhari (no. 10) & Muslim (no. 40).

(1052) See: ‘at–Tariq Ila al–Islam’ (pp. 33–4).

(1053) See: ‘at–Tariq Ilal–Islam’ (pp. 34–5).

(1054) Reported by al–Bukhari (no. 2995).

(1055) Reported by ‘Abdur–Razzaq in ‘al–Musannaf’ (no. 9679) & Ahmad in ‘al–Musnad’ (no. 1910).

(1056) See: ‘Sahih al–Bukhari’ (no. 6769) & ‘Sahih Muslim’ (no. 1669).

(1057) See: ‘Talbis Mardud’ (pp. 22–7) & ‘at–Tariq Ilal–Islam’ (pp. 28–40).

Section Two: Islam, Coexistence & Tolerance
It is well–known that Islam is the final religion and God’s last message to mankind. Therefore, the comprehensiveness and universality of this message is not surprising. The laws of Islam are not restricted to governing the relations between Muslims, rather they detail interactions between all people, regardless of religious affiliation. Islam is thus a practical, pragmatic religion and is not merely a set of utopian theories which bears no relevance to reality.

Allah the Almighty created all people and decreed that some of them would be disbelievers while others would be believers. He commanded with calling people to the truth, however He did not burden callers with the conversion of people.

as is indicated by His saying to Prophet Muhammad –peace be upon him–:
(إِنْ عَلَيْكَ إِلَّا الْبَلَاغُ)
Sura ash–Shura; (42):48
(Meaning: Your duty is only to convey the Message.)

The differing of people is an inevitable occurrence which is mentioned in the Quran:
(وَلَوْ شَآءَ رَبُّكَ لَجَعَلَ النَّاسَ أُمَّةً وَاحِدَةً وَلَا يَزَالُونَ مُخْتَلِفِينَ ١١٨ إِلَّا مَن رَّحِمَ رَبُّكَ)
Sura Hud; (11):118–9
(Meaning: And if your Lord had willed, He could have made humankind one community; but they will not cease to differ, except those shown mercy by your Lord.)

Admission of differences does not equate to justification of falsehood, however, nor does it necessitate the acceptance or approval of all ideologies. Likewise, it does not mean being content with them, nor does it mean withholding from refuting and rebutting them, or from inviting to the truth.

Rather the intent is that a person remains civilised concerning such differences and adheres to the Islamic guidance, which usually advises with gentleness and leniency when interacting with people who have different viewpoints(1058). Wisdom, fairness, and courtesy should be adopted when inviting others to the religion of Islam. Tolerance should be maintained as long as it does not compromise any part of Islam or allow them to undermine its sanctitude or sacredness.(1059) This is the Islamic meaning of coexistence.

The term coexistence is an increasingly popular word very similar in meaning to ‘tolerance’, which was more commonly used in the past. Anyone who explores the history of Islam and its religious texts will see clearly the spirit of tolerance and beneficence they contain.

An overview of tolerance as well as some examples of its manifestation in Islamic legislation and in history shall be provided in the following pages.

Firstly: The meaning of tolerance
Shaikh Muhammad At–Tahir bin ‘Ashur –may Allah have mercy upon him– writes:
“The Arabic word for tolerance derives from the word for pardon, which means to show lenience.”

He continues:
“The essence of lenience is that a person acts pleasantly and amicably in situations where harshness is expected from them. Both of these qualities are indicative of the mild nature of an individual. In the authentic narration, Prophet Muhammad –peace be upon him– says: “May Allah have mercy on a person who is good–natured when selling, good–natured when buying and good–natured when asking for their rights.”(1060)”(1061)

Ibn ‘Ashur goes on to say:
“In this treatise, tolerance is used to refer to showing lenience to non–Muslims, and it is a term which theologians of the last century borrowed from the saying of Prophet Muhammad –peace be upon him–: “I have been sent with a lenient, upright religion.”(1062) Thus, tolerance has come to mean lenience through frequent usage, and it is for this reason it was chosen to signify showing religious leniency. Previously, people used the terms easy–going and tolerant as synonyms, which, linguistically is correct. However, ‘easy–going’ carries connotations of religious laxity which is why it was abandoned in favour of the term ‘tolerance’. Tolerance aptly describes the intended meaning and is therefore the best match.”(1063)

Secondly: The importance of research regarding the tolerance of Islam
As Ibn ‘Ashur mentions, the tolerance of Islam is one of the most intriguing issues for people seeking to discover its reality, since many scholars and academics, particularly those who are non–Muslims, have misconceptions regarding it. Some people mistakenly believe that tolerance has no place in Islam, while others either underestimate or overestimate it. However, some of these misconceptions can be excused because it is likely such people consider the state of Muslims throughout the course of history as representative of Islam, whereas in reality it contradicts the religion and the many evidences of tolerance it contains.

These examples of intolerance may have occurred as a result of the harsh treatment and persecutions endured by Muslims at the hands of certain people of other religions who initially took advantage of Islamic tolerance and favoured their own interests. Over centuries, this has caused Muslims to be cautious and to reciprocate by mirroring the intolerance they experienced historically. In any case, this bears no relevance to the topic at hand and should not distort the meaning of tolerance.

Note that when Muslims were powerful, the hostility of their enemies did not prevent them from acting virtuously and tolerantly, even if it meant they had to exercise caution at all times. The merit of virtue should not be forsaken due to it potentially being interpreted as a weakness; however, a person should be vigilant in warding off threats.(1064)

From a different perspective, it would be inappropriate to judge Islam according to what was practiced by some Muslims during certain periods of history, especially during modern times. Moreover, it would be unfair and narrow–minded to view Islam in accordance with the attitudes of a few Muslims as this would lead a person to the conclusion that Islam does not instil morality in its people or improve their condition.

Therefore, unbiased, genuine seekers of the truth must learn about Islam via its primary sources, namely the Quran, Prophetic traditions and the practices of the pious predecessors. Secondary sources which discuss Islam in a fair, scholarly way can also be relied on to obtain an accurate image of Islam. Anyone who researches Islam in this way will discover its objectives of bringing happiness to humans, spreading peace and security and promoting justice and beneficence.

The deviations of some of those who ascribe themselves to Islam cannot be attributed to the religion or cause it to be faulted, when in truth it is innocent. Only the deviants themselves can be blamed for the consequences of their actions, as they are not acting in the name of Islam but are contradicting its teachings.

Impartiality dictates that a person observes the true adherents to Islam who implement its legislation and rules. This would lead them to respect and revere the religion of Islam and its people as they would come to know that it incentivises all good and warns against all evil. Those who practice Islam correctly and respect its laws are upright individuals with high moral standards which are attested to by everyone. Selectively focussing on the behaviour of lax Muslims who deviate from the straight path is an injustice to Islam.(1065)

Thirdly:
Tolerance in Islam is the result of thoughtful reform and high moral standards, both of which are from the foundations of the Islamic social system

Tolerance is the result of correct belief which commands with good, prohibits from evil, regulates the feelings of a person and prevents them from foolishness. An intellect free from doubts and desires leads to firm, correct belief. However, an individual may still feel distress and surprise because of the small number of those who are guided to the correct creed when it is so obvious. This is where ethics and Islamic etiquette come into play and alleviate such a feeling of discomfort. They allow a person to accept opposing views calmly and then to respond accordingly with a clarification of the truth.

Islamic injunctions often evoke these two principles, namely that of having resolute belief and of having high moral standards.

Allah the Almighty says concerning having unwavering belief regardless of the beliefs of others:
(إِنَّكَ عَلَى الْحَقِّ الْمُبِينِ ٧٩ إِنَّكَ لَا تُسْمِعُ الْمَوْتَى وَلَا تُسْمِعُ الصُّمَّ الدُّعَآءَ إِذَا وَلَّوْاْ مُدْبِرِينَ)
Sura an–Naml; (27):79–80

(Meaning: Indeed, you are upon the clear truth. Verily, you will not make the dead hear, nor will you make the deaf hear the call when they have turned their backs retreating.)

In a similar verse, Allah says:
(يَآأَيُّهَا الَّذِينَ ءَامَنُواْ عَلَيْكُمْ أَنفُسَكُمْ لَا يَضُرُّكُم مَّن ضَلَّ إِذَا اهْتَدَيْتُمْ)
Sura al–Ma•idah; (5):105
(Meaning: O you who believe! Take care of your own selves. Those who have gone astray cannot harm you when you have been guided.)

The evocation of having high moral principles occurs in the like of the following verse:
(فَلَعَلَّكَ بَاخِعٞ نَّفْسَكَ عَلَىٓ ءَاثَارِهِمْ إِن لَّمْ يُؤْمِنُواْ بِهَذَا الْحَدِيثِ أَسَفًا)
Sura al–Kahf; (18):6
(Meaning: Then perhaps you would be consumed by grief and sorrow for them if they do not believe in this message.) In this verse, the phrase ‘perhaps you will be consumed by grief and sorrow’ means: ‘perhaps you would kill yourself in grief and out of sorrow’. This invocation undoubtedly comforts the heart and prepares it to endure opposition.

It is thus possible to conclude that tolerance is one of the defining characteristics of Islam and one of its distinctive blessings.

Tolerance in Islam also serves as the most obvious proof of the merciful nature of the Islamic message which Allah refers to in His saying:
(وَمَا أَرْسَلْنَاكَ إِلاَّ رَحْمَةً لِلْعَالَمِينَ)
Sura al–Anbiya•; (21):108
(Meaning: And We have not sent you, O Muhammad, except as a mercy to the worlds.) (1066)

Fourthly: Islam establishes general principles for tolerance
Islam lays down solid foundations in the form of solemn covenants which clearly detail the duties and commitments Muslims have to their fellow Muslims, as well as to people of other religions. The Quran and the Prophetic traditions both teach Muslims that differing is inevitable amongst humans. When a person is mindful of this fact, they come to realize such differing results from variance in people’s perceptions, some of which are correct and some of which are incorrect. Viewed in this manner, differences are not points of contention which justify aggression.

Allah the Almighty says:
(وَلَوْ شَآءَ رَبُّكَ لَجَعَلَ النَّاسَ أُمَّةً وَاحِدَةً وَلَا يَزَالُونَ مُخْتَلِفِينَ ١١٨ إِلَّا مَن رَّحِمَ رَبُّكَ وَلِذَالِكَ خَلَقَهُمْ)
Sura Hud; (11):118–9
(Meaning: And if your Lord had so willed, He could surely have made mankind one nation, but they will not cease to disagree. Except whom your Lord has given mercy, and for that He created them.)

In a similar verse, Allah says:
(وَقُلِ الْحَقُّ مِن رَّبِّكُمْ فَمَن شَآءَ فَلْيُؤْمِن وَمَن شَآءَ فَلْيَكْفُرْ)
Sura al–Kahf; (18):29
(Meaning: And say: “The truth is from your Lord”. Then whosoever wills, let him believe, and whosoever wills, let him disbelieve.)

Allah also says:
(لِّكُلِّ أُمَّةٍ جَعَلْنَا مَنسَكًا هُمْ نَاسِكُوهُ فَلَا يُنَازِعُنَّكَ فِي الْأَمْرِ)
Sura al–Hajj; (22):67
(Meaning: For every religion We have appointed rites which they perform. So, let the disbelievers not contend with you over the matter.)

There are many more verses along the same lines as these. To give everything its proper due and to judge things in accordance with their attributes is a laudable trait, as opposed to forming opinions on things haphazardly or impulsively.(1067)

Fifthly: The tolerant nature of Muslims throughout history
Non–Muslim citizens lived peacefully in the lands of Islam without anyone interfering with their beliefs or religions. Indeed, the long history of Islam testifies to the fact that Islamic legislation and its adherents allowed citizens of other religions who lived under the Islamic state to remain upon their beliefs. It is also well–known that this was not out of weakness as this remained the case even when the Islamic state was at the height of its power.(1068)

Shaikh Muhammad At–Tahir bin ‘Ashur –may Allah have mercy upon him– wrote after recalling the tolerance of Muslims of people of other religions:
“The reader is free to verify this for themselves by referring to the historical examples from the eras in which Islam was correctly implemented and wherein it was free from distortion and misinterpretation.

The Muslims of such times had many diverse communities living under their authority, such as Christian Arabs, Zoroastrian Persians, Jacobite Copts, Sabian Mesopotamians and Jews of Jericho, all of whom were treated in the friendliest manner.”(1069)

He goes on to write:
“No other nation in the history of the world has allowed its own citizens and those who oppose it in religion to be treated equally, whether in terms of justice or regarding other walks of life, according to the following principle: they have the same rights and responsibilities as us, in addition to the entitlement to their own culture and religious practices. This constitutes more than mere tolerance; it is more aptly described as ‘the greatness of Islam’ because the fact that Islam places tolerance at the core of its system reflects its self–confidence, truthfulness, and pure intent. Indeed, the true nature of a thing is indicated by its concrete manifestations.

Allah the Almighty expresses these meanings in His saying:
(قُلْ هَذِهِ سَبِيلِيٓ أَدْعُوٓاْ إِلَى اللَّهِ عَلَى بَصِيرَةٍ أَنَا۠ وَمَنِ اتَّبَعَنِيً)
Sura Yusuf; (12):108
(Meaning: Say: “This is my way; I invite to Allah with insight, I and those who follow me.”) (1070)

The foregoing has been a further discussion of the tolerance of Muslims and their peaceful coexistence with other communities. The following section will be a continuation of this topic and will discuss freedom of religion in Islam. Testimonies of the tolerance of Islam from non–Muslims will also be mentioned.

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(1058) See: ‘Khutuwat fi Fiqh at–Ta’ayush wat–Tajdid’ of Dr. Hani Faqih (p. 19).

(1059) See: ‘Usul an–Nitham al–Ijtima’i fil–Islam’ (p. 213).

(1060) Reported by al–Bukhari (no. 1970).

(1061) See: ‘Usul an–Nitham al–Ijtima’i fil–Islam’ (p. 213).

(1062) Reported by Ahmad (no. 22345) & at–Tabarani in ‘al–Kabir’ (no. 7803) and declared to be authentic by al–Albani in ‘as–Sahihah’ (no. 2924).

(1063) See: ‘Usul an–Nitham al–Ijtima’i fil–Islam’ (p. 213).

(1064) See: ‘Usul an–Nitham al–Ijtima’i fil–Islam’ (p. 214).

(1065) See: ‘Tanzih ad–Din wa Hamalatihi wa Rijalihi’ of as–Sa’di (p. 474).

(1066) See: ‘Usul an–Nitham al–Ijtima’i fil–Islam’ (pp. 215–6).

(1067) See: ‘Usul an–Nitham al–Ijtima’i fil–Islam’ (pp. 216–7).

(1068) See: ‘Talbis Mardud fi Qadaya Hayyah’ (pp. 31–2).

(1069) See: ‘Usul an–Nitham al–Ijtima’i fil–Islam’ (pp. 219).

(1070) See: ‘Usul an–Nitham al–Ijtima’i fil–Islam’ (pp. 219).

Section Three: The Islamic Perspective on Compulsion
This section is a completion of the previous sections and aims to further demonstrate the tolerance promoted by Islam through its rejection of compulsion.

Firstly: The meaning of compulsion
Linguistically, compulsion means to force someone to do something against their will.(1071)

In a technical sense, it is definable as:
Anything that causes a person who refuses to carry out an order to undergo violence, imprisonment, deprivation of sustenance and the like.(1072)

Secondly: The Islamic perspective regarding opponents
There is no religion that has detailed the rights and duties of its opponents more than the Islamic legislation, as has been partly addressed previously. The scholars of Islam have written books on this subject such as Ibn Al–Qayyim –may Allah have mercy upon him– in his outstanding book ‘Ahkam Ahl Adh–Dhimma (Laws Regarding Non–Muslims)’(1073), and some Western academics are of the opinion that the contracts made between Prophet Muhammad –peace be upon him– and non–Muslims were the first in history to officially grant freedom of religion.(1074)

Thirdly: There is no compulsion in converting to Islam
In origin, nobody is compelled to convert to Islam, as is clearly stated in the texts of the Quran and Prophetic traditions, and as was the practice of Muslims in their relations with other communities.(1075)

A forced conversion is invalid for various reasons, such as:
1. Whoever believes through compulsion will not benefit from such belief. True faith must instead be based on conviction, sincerity and serenity.(1076)

Ibn Taymiyyah –may Allah have mercy upon him– said:
“It is for this reason that there is no disagreement regarding the invalidity of the utterances of a person under illegitimate constraint. Thus, all statements made under illegitimate compulsion which constitute belief or disbelief are void.”(1077)

2. The role of the messengers and their followers is to convey the message and communicate the truth to people.

Allah the Almighty addresses Prophet Muhammad –peace be upon him–in His saying:
(إِنْ عَلَيْكَ إِلَّا الْبَلَاغُ)
Sura ash–Shura; (42):48
(Meaning: Your duty is to convey the Message.)

Allah also says:
(قُلْ إِنَّمَآ أَنَا۠ مُنذِر)
Sura Saad; (38):65
(Meaning: Say: “I am only a warner.”)

Their responsibility is to invite to Islam and to transmit its message, as well as to advise and to enjoin the good and forbid the evil. This is what is known as the guidance of instruction and explanation. Divine guidance, inspiration and causing faith to enter the hearts of people, on the other hand, is granted by Allah alone.

In Islam, there are no intermediaries between a person and their Creator, which is further proof of the freedom it allows. Each person, regardless of their status, has a direct relationship with their Lord without the need for an intermediary.(1078)

3. The existence of non–Muslim citizens in Muslim countries, as has preceded.

4. The testimonies of non–Muslims themselves, which shall be mentioned shortly.

5. The fact that if a Muslim man marries a woman from the People of the Book (i.e. a Jewish or Christian woman), she is not obliged to forsake her religion and convert to Islam. Rather she is fully entitled to remain upon her religion and her rights remain intact.(1079)

Fourthly:
Famous religious texts excluding compulsion from Islam
Perhaps the most famously quoted evidence indicating that compulsion has no place in Islam is the Quranic verse:
(لَآ إِكْرَاهَ فِي الدِّينِ قَد تَّبَيَّنَ الرُّشْدُ مِنَ الْغَيِّ)
Sura al–Baqarah; (2):256
(Meaning: There is no compulsion in religion: true guidance has become distinct from error.)

Ibn Kathir –may Allah have mercy upon him– says in exegesis of the foregoing verse:
“i.e. Do not force anyone to accept Islam, for the religion of Islam is plain and clear, as are its proofs and evidences. Therefore, there is no need to force anyone to embrace Islam. Rather, whoever Allah guides to Islam by making their heart receptive to it and enlightening their mind will embrace it themselves out of conviction. Conversely, whoever’s heart Allah blinds and whoever’s hearing and sight He places a seal upon will not benefit from being forced or coerced to embrace Islam.”(1080)

Moreover, the Quran prescribes beneficence to non–Muslims in the verses wherein Allah the Almighty says:
(لَّا يَنْهَاكُمُ اللَّهُ عَنِ الَّذِينَ لَمْ يُقَاتِلُوكُمْ فِي الدِّينِ وَلَمْ يُخْرِجُوكُم مِّن دِيَارِكُمْ أَن تَبَرُّوهُمْ وَتُقْسِطُوٓاْ إِلَيْهِمْ إِنَّ اللَّهَ يُحِبُّ الْمُقْسِطِينَ ٨ إِنَّمَا يَنْهَاكُمُ اللَّهُ عَنِ الَّذِينَ قَاتَلُوكُمْ فِي الدِّينِ وَأَخْرَجُوكُم مِّن دِيَارِكُمْ وَظَاهَرُواْ عَلَىٓ إِخْرَاجِكُمْ أَن تَوَلَّوْهُمْ وَمَن يَتَوَلَّهُمْ فَأُولَٓئِكَ هُمُ الظَّالِمُونَ)
Sura al–Mumtahanah; (60):9
(Meaning: Allah does not forbid you to deal justly and kindly with those who fought not against you on account of religion and did not drive you out of your homes. Verily, Allah loves those who deal with equity. It is only as regards those who fought against you on account of religion, and have driven you out of your homes, and helped to drive you out, that Allah forbids you to befriend. And whosoever will befriend them, then such are the wrongdoers.)

These verses clearly show that such people continued to remain upon their own religion while living alongside the Muslims without Islam forbidding good treatment of them.

The principle of religious freedom is also affirmed in the saying of Allah
(وَقُلِ الْحَقُّ مِن رَّبِّكُمْ فَمَن شَآءَ فَلْيُؤْمِن وَمَن شَآءَ فَلْيَكْفُرْ)
Sura al–Kahf; (18):29
(Meaning: And say: “The truth is from your Lord, so whoever wills, let them believe; and whoever wills, let them disbelieve.) This verse means that people are to be called to Islam, however this does not necessitate that everyone who is invited to Islam and to guidance will respond, despite the fact everyone is obliged to be Muslim.(1081)

Fifthly: Testimonies of the tolerance of Islam from non–Muslims
There are many testimonies of not only the tolerance and justice, but of the beneficence of Muslims towards people of other religions. Most of these testimonies are from unbiased observers, while others come from members of the clergy and yet others from people known for their hatred and ignorance of Islam.

Some of their testimonies will be quoted throughout the following pages.
1. The Arabic Bible Encyclopaedia, written by a group of biblical theologians, compares the religious situation in other parts of the world with the good treatment received by Christians in Egypt at the time of the Islamic conquests: “The Jews and Copts received better treatment from the Arabs than they did from the Romans or the Greek clerics. After the Arab conquest, the Church no longer underwent persecutions, which led to a period of growth and meant the number of its followers increased considerably.”(1082)

2. The Archbishop Michel Yatim commented on the Muslim conquest of the Levant and Mesopotamia (modern–day Syria and Iraq, respectively) regions, which were predominantly populated by Christians, by saying:
“When the Arabs established their rule over the whole region, only a few years after the beginning of the conquests, the Muslim caliphs and rulers were forced to make clear decisions defining their relations with Christians and organising their religious, political and social affairs. This era was characterised by tolerance and kindness. The Muslims allowed whoever wished from the residents, monks and officials to migrate to the Byzantine territories. A large number of Christians thus left the area while those who chose to remain kept their right to freedom of religion, as well as their churches, wealth and legislation which continued to be enforced by their bishops.” Then he went on to discuss their responsibilities in return for such rights.(1083)

3. Ignaz Goldziher, an orientalist well–known for his unfounded criticism of certain Islamic laws, does not hide his admiration when he writes:
“What today still resembles religious toleration in the constitutional practice of Islamic states –features in the public law of Islam often noted by eighteenth–century travellers– goes back to the principle of the free practice of religion by non–Muslim monotheists, stated in the first half of the seventh century. Tolerance in early Islam had the support of Quran verse 2:256: ‘There is no compulsion in religion’. The verse was resorted to in later times, too, in occasional cases of apostasy by people who had been forcibly converted to Islam, to avert from them the severe punishment the law would otherwise have demanded for renouncing the faith. Reports from the first decades of Islam furnish a number of examples for the religious toleration practiced by the first caliphs toward the adherents of the old religions. The instructions to the leaders of armies setting out for the wars of conquest are usually very illuminating.”(1084)

4. The German orientalist Sigrid Hunke writes:
“The accusations of fanaticism and barbarism brought by some against Muslims are only legends born of their imagination, refuted by thousands of proofs of their tolerance and their humanity in the treatment of vanquished peoples. The long scrolls of history only present us with a tiny number of peoples who treated their opposers and their opponents as equitably as the Arabs. This behaviour of theirs had positive consequences since it allowed the Arab civilization to take root among such peoples more effectively than the specious Greek civilization or the brutal and forceful Roman civilization.”(1085)

5. The English Orientalist, Thomas Arnold, writes in his book ‘The Preaching of Islam’:
“From the examples given above of the toleration extended towards the Christian Arabs by the victorious Muslims of the first century of the Hijrah and continued by succeeding generations, we may surely infer that those Christian tribes that did embrace Islam, did so of their own choice and free will. The Christian Arabs of the present day, dwelling in the midst of a Muhammadan population, are a living testament of this toleration.(1086)

6. Arnold writes the following a few lines later:
“If we turn from the Bedouins to consider the attitude of the settled inhabitants of the towns and the non–Arab population towards the new religion, we do not find that the Arab conquest was so rapidly followed by conversions to Islam. The Christians of the great cities of the eastern provinces of the Byzantine empire seem for the most part to have remained faithful to their ancestral creed, to which indeed they still in large numbers cling.”(1087)

These are a few from among many testimonies that highlight the tolerance of Muslims.(1088)

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(1071) See: ‘Lisan al–Arab’ (13/535) & ‘Fath al–Bari’ of Ibn Hajr (12/311).

(1072) See: ‘Majmu’at al–Fatawa al–Misriyyah’ of Ibn Taymiyyah (1/56).

(1073) See: ‘Huquq al–Insan Bayna al–Yahud wal–Masihiyyah wal–Islam’ (p. 300).

(1074) See: ‘The Evolution of International Human Rights: Visions Seen’ of Paul Gordon Lauren (p. 24)

(1075) See: ‘Huquq al–Insan’ (p. 301).

(1076) See: ‘Talbis Mardud’ (p. 28).

(1077) See: ‘al–Istiqamah’ of Ibn Taymiyyah (2/219–20).

(1078) See: ‘Talbis Mardud’ (p. 29).

(1079) See: ‘Talbis Mardud’ (p. 32).

(1080) See: ‘Tafsir Ibn Kathir’ (1/682). There are other exegeses of this verse, however the one quoted is the most famous.

(1081) See: ‘Huquq al–Insan’ (p. 202–5).

(1082) The Arabic Bible Encyclopaedia, written by a group of theologians. Entry ‘Alexander’. Also see: ‘Huquq al–Insan’ (p. 313).

(1083) See: ‘Tarikh al–Kanisah ash–Sharqiyyah’ of Michel Yatim and Ignatius Dick (p. 168) & ‘Huquq al–Insan’ (p. 314).

(1084) See: ‘al–‘Aqidah wa ash–Shari’ah fil–Islam (Introduction to Islamic Theology and Law)’ of Ignaz Goldziher (p. 46), translated into English by Andras and Ruth Hamori (p. 33–4). Also see: ‘Huquq al–Insan’ (p. 315).

(1085) See: ‘Shams al–‘Arab Tasta’u ‘Ala al–Gharb’ of Sigrid Hunke (p. 357).

(1086) See: ‘ad–Da’wah Ila al–Islam (The Preaching of Islam: A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith)’ of Thomas Arnold (pp. 98–9 of the translation, pp. 51–2 of the original).

(1087) See: ‘ad–Da’wah Ila al–Islam (The Preaching of Islam: A History of the Propagation of the Muslim Faith)’ of Thomas Arnold (p. 99 of the translation, p. 52 of the original)

Section Four: The Islamic Perspective on Violence
Introduction: Regarding the meaning of violence
Ibn Manthur –may Allah have mercy upon him– wrote:
“Violence means to show aggression. It is the opposite of gentleness.”(1089)

Being violent thus means being rough, brutal and harsh in situations requiring gentleness.

The universal definition of violence includes non–physical acts of violence such as threats, intimidation, and the like, all of which contradict gentleness.

In what follows, the Islamic perspective on violence will be discussed with reference to examples of the gentleness of Prophet –Muhammad –peace be upon him– towards the opposers of Islam.

Firstly: The Islamic perspective on violence
Islam condemns violence by warning against it and clarifying its harmful consequences, but also by prescribing, encouraging and incentivising gentleness. The texts of the Quran and the Prophetic traditions contain many passages which, both explicitly and implicitly, either command with gentleness and recall its merits or forbid violence and recall its harms. This is true in all situations, including: religious propagation; calling for change and reform, as well as personal or public affairs.

Allah the Almighty addresses Aaron and Moses –peace be upon them– by saying:
(اذْهَبَآ إِلَى فِرْعَوْنَ إِنَّهُۥ طَغَى ٤٣ فَقُولَا لَهُۥ قَوْلًا لَّيِّنًا لَّعَلَّهُۥ يَتَذَكَّرُ أَوْ يَخْشَى)
Sura Ta–Ha; (20):43–4
(Meaning: Go, both of you, to Pharaoh. Indeed, he has transgressed. But speak to him mildly; perchance ha may accept admonition or fear Allah.)

He inspired Moses –peace be upon him– with the kindest words that can be possibly addressed to a tyrant who declares: ‘I am your lord, the Almighty’.

Allah the Almighty says:
(فَقُلْ هَل لَّكَ إِلَىٓ أَن تَزَكَّى ١٨ وَأَهْدِيَكَ إِلَى رَبِّكَ فَتَخْشَى)
Sura an–Nazi’at; (79):18–19
(Meaning: And say to him: “Would you be willing to purify yourself of sin? And that I guide you to your Lord, so you should fear Him?”)

Ibn Al–Qayyim –may Allah have mercy upon him– comments on these verses by saying:
“Notice how Moses carried out the command of his Lord and said to Pharaoh:
(هَل لَّكَ إِلَىٓ أَن تَزَكَّى ١٨ وَأَهْدِيَكَ إِلَى رَبِّكَ فَتَخْشَى)
Sura an–Nazi’at; (79):18–19
(Meaning: “Would you be willing to purify yourself of sin? And that I guide you to your Lord, so you should fear Him?”)

Moses addresses him with an offer and a question, not with an outright command. Moreover, he says to Pharaoh: ‘Would you be willing to purify yourself of sin?’ instead of ‘Would you be willing that I purify you of sin’, and thus leaves him the merit of his own initiative. The verb ‘purify’ was used due to that which it implies from blessing, good and improvement.

Moses then says to him:
‘And that I guide you to your Lord’ i.e. I offer you the proposal of acting as a guide; I shall precede you and lead you forward.

The fact he said:
‘to your Lord’ is because he wished to appeal to the faith of Pharaoh in his Lord, the One who created him, provided him with sustenance and granted him many blessings.”(1090)

Whoever possesses the trait of gentleness wins the hearts of people. Courteous and kind speech has a much more profound effect on the hearts and souls of people and is more likely to be listened to.

Prophet –Muhammad –peace be upon him– was not only endowed with a gentle temperament and granted an inclination to gentleness, but he was also protected from sternness and harshness.

Allah the Almighty says:
(فَبِمَا رَحْمَة مِّنَ اللَّهِ لِنتَ لَهُمْ وَلَوْ كُنتَ فَظًّا غَلِيظَ الْقَلْبِ لَانفَضُّواْ مِنْ حَوْلِكَ فَاعْفُ عَنْهُمْ وَاسْتَغْفِرْ لَهُمْ وَشَاوِرْهُمْ فِي الْأَمْرِ)
Sura Aali–‘Imran; (3):159
(Meaning: So, by mercy from Allah you were lenient with them. And if you had been rude in speech and harsh in heart, they would have disbanded from about you. So, pardon them, ask forgiveness for them and consult them in the matter.)

The Prophetic biography is filled with examples of his gentleness in speech, as well as in other matters. In addition to observing gentleness, Prophet –Muhammad –peace be upon him– also encouraged this trait in others and emphasised its merit. He  says: “Allah is gentle, and He loves gentleness. He rewards for gentleness and not for harshness, and He does not reward anything else like it.”(1091)

In another narration, Prophet –Muhammad –peace be upon him– says:
 “Whenever gentleness is present in anything, it adorns it, and whenever it is absent from something, it renders it defective.”(1092)

Similarly, when the Prophet –peace be upon him– sent Abu Musa Al–Ash’ari and Mu’adh to Yemen, he instructed them thus:
“Make things easy and do not make them difficult; give glad tidings and do not create aversion; work together and do not be divided.”(1093)

The narration referenced by the two canonical collections of Prophetic traditions, Al–Bukhari and Muslim, records an instance of the gentleness of Prophet –Muhammad –peace be upon him–. A man came to the Prophet –peace be upon him– to claim his debt and addressed him harshly. When the companions were about to harm him, the Prophet –peace be upon him– said to them: “Leave him, for indeed a person owed rights is entitled to express themselves.”(1094)

Another narration referenced by Al–Bukhari and Muslim mentions that a group of Jews came to the Prophet –peace be upon him–and said to him:
‘May death be upon you’, replacing the word ‘peace’ with ‘death’. Prophet –Muhammad –peace be upon him– replied by simply saying: “And upon you too.” When the Mother of the Believers, Aisha –may Allah be pleased with her–, replied by saying: ‘And may death and Allah’s curse be upon you’, the Prophet –peace be upon him– said to her: “Easy, Aisha! Allah loves gentleness in all matters.”(1095)

A further narration referenced by Al–Bukhari on the authority of Aisha –may Allah be pleased with her– that she said:
“By Allah, he never sought revenge for himself regarding anything, unless Allah’s limits were exceeded, in which case he would take revenge for the sake of Allah.”(1096) Anyone who carefully examines the Prophetic biography will discover the accuracy of Aisha’s description of the Prophet. Prophet –Muhammad –peace be upon him– was indeed gentle and forbearing; he never sought revenge from anyone who harmed him, nor did he hold grudges against anyone who spoke to him rudely. Rather he responded to insults with kindness and to harshness with gentleness, unless the evil was overwhelming such that it interfered with the propagation of the message of Islam or caused trouble amongst the community of Muslims.(1097)

Gentleness and lenience are therefore appropriate of a person, and they were traits which Prophet –Muhammad –peace be upon him– was inclined to the majority of the time. However, if certain situations arose in which particular individuals deserved to be treated firmly and there were no major drawbacks that resulted from showing them such treatment, they were treated accordingly. This explains why Moses –peace be upon him– addressed Pharaoh mildly to begin with, and only after he was met with Pharaoh’s stubbornness, arrogance and refusal of the truth after it was presented to him did Moses address him with harsher words.

Allah the Almighty says:
(وَإِنِّي لَأَظُنُّكَ يَافِرْعَوْنُ مَثْبُورًا)
Sura al–Isra•; (17):102
(Meaning: And indeed, I think you are, O Pharaoh, doomed to destruction.)

Notice the difference between the former and latter addresses.

In this regard, Allah the Almighty also says:
(وَلَا تُجَادِلُوٓاْ أَهْلَ الْكِتَابِ إِلَّا بِالَّتِي هِيَ أَحْسَنُ إِلَّا الَّذِينَ ظَلَمُواْ مِنْهُمْ)
Sura al–‘Ankabut; (29):46
(Meaning: And do not argue with the People of the Scripture except in a way that is best, except for those who commit injustice among them.)

Abraham –peace be upon him– said to his people:
(أُفّ لَّكُمْ وَلِمَا تَعْبُدُونَ مِن دُونِ اللَّهِ)  
Sura al–Anbiya•; (21):67
(Meaning: “Fie upon you, and upon that which you worship besides Allah.”

Prophet –Muhammad –peace be upon him– would likewise act in a similar way when required by circumstances. One instance of this is recorded in a narration referenced by the two canonical collections of Prophetic traditions, Al–Bukhari and Muslim, regarding the woman from the clan of Banu Makhzum who was guilty of theft. Aisha –may Allah be pleased with her– relates that the people of the Quraysh tribe were worried about a woman from the clan of Banu Makhzum who stole, so they said: ‘Who will speak to the Messenger –peace be upon him–of Allah –peace be upon him– regarding her?’ They came to the conclusion that only Usama bin Zayd would be bold enough to do so, due to the love of the Prophet –peace be upon him– for him. However, after speaking to the Messenger –peace be upon him–of Allah –peace be upon him– regarding her, he said to him: “Do you intercede regarding one of the punishments prescribed by Allah?!” Thereupon, he delivered an address in which he said: “O people! Indeed, the people before you went astray because they used to leave their thieving nobles; however, they would punish their thieving peasants. By Allah, if Fatimah, the daughter of Muhammad, were to commit theft, Muhammad would certainly amputate her hand.”(1098)

Al–Bukhari even entitled a chapter within his authentic collection of Prophetic traditions, under the Book of Good Manners, ‘Chapter: Permissible Anger and Harshness for the Sake of Allah’ wherein he references five narrations.(1099)

It is thus possible to conclude that a person should typically display gentleness and that it is suitable in most scenarios, provided there is nothing that warrants severity. However, even when severity is justifiable, it would be considered inappropriate from certain people, especially youth, unknowledgeable, uninfluential or ordinary people.

Perhaps the reason for the variance in the conduct of Prophet –Muhammad –peace be upon him– regarding gentleness and harshness was because he would treat each person that he came into contact with fittingly. He had a gentle temperament by default and showed gentleness to the ignorant, as well as to children, new converts and other people whom it befitted. Conversely, occasionally he was severe with those who acted in an unbefitting manner because of their long companionship, or their great knowledge, devotion or piety.(1100) He was also harsh with people who were stubborn, arrogant, or proud, as well as those who mocked or belittled the call to Islam. Exercising gentleness when necessary is from wisdom, just as exercising severity when necessary is also from wisdom.

Secondly: Examples of the gentleness of Prophet –Muhammad –peace be upon him– towards opponents
The Prophetic biography is filled with examples of the gentleness of the Prophet –peace be upon him– towards opponents of varying social classes. For example:
1. The two canonical collections of Prophetic traditions, Al–Bukhari and Muslim, reference a narration in the authority of Sa’id bin Abi Sa’id that he heard Abu Hurairah saying:
“Allah’s Messenger –peace be upon him–sent some horsemen towards the region of Najd. When they returned, they brought with them a man from the tribe of Banu Hanifa named Thumamah bin Uthaal, who was the chief of the people of Al–Yamamah. They preceded to tie him to one of the pillars of the mosque, and when Allah’s Messenger –peace be upon him– went out to see him, he addressed him by saying: “What do you think I am going to do with you O Thumamah?” He replied: “I have positive thoughts; if you kill me, then I am deserving of death as I already have much blood on my hands, and if you free me then I will be thankful. If it is wealth that you want, then ask and you shall be given as much as you wish for.” The Prophet –peace be upon him– came back to him the next day and said: “What do you think I am going to do with you O Thumamah?” He replied: “I have positive thoughts; if you kill me, then I am deserving of death as I already have much blood on my hands, and if you free me then I will be thankful. If it is wealth that you want, then ask and you shall be given as much as you wish for.” The Prophet –peace be upon him– left him until the following day and again said: “What do you think I am going to do with you O Thumamah?” He replied in the same manner: “I have positive thoughts; if you kill me, then I am deserving of death as I already have much blood on my hands, and if you free me then I will be thankful. If it is wealth that you want, then ask and you shall be given as much as you wish for.” Thereupon, the Prophet –peace be upon him– said: “Release Thumamah.” After being freed, he went to a date–palm near the mosque and took a bath before returning to the mosque and saying: “O Muhammad! I bear witness that none has the right to be worshipped except Allah alone, and I bear witness that Muhammad is His slave and messenger. By Allah, there was not a person whom I loathed more than you, whereas now you are the most beloved of people to me. By Allah, there was not a religion which I detested more than your religion, however your religion is now the most beloved of religions to me. By Allah, your country was the most hated of lands to me, whereas now it is the most beloved of places to me. Your riders captured me while I was on my way to perform the minor pilgrimage, what do you advise me to do now?” The Prophet –peace be upon him– congratulated him, gave him glad tidings and ordered him to perform the minor pilgrimage. As he reached Makkah, someone said to him: “Have you apostate?” He replied: “No, but I have joined Islam with Allah’s Messenger –peace be upon him–. By Allah you will not receive a single grain of wheat from Al–Yamamah unless Allah’s Messenger –peace be upon him– approves.”(1101)

This narration highlights the forbearance, patience and calmness of the Prophet –peace be upon him– as he reprieved him for three days while asking him:
“What do you think I am going to do with you, O Thumamah?” When the Prophet –peace be upon him– sensed his self–pride and picked up on the fact that he was a chief who did not accept degradation, he pardoned and released him on the third day. This gracious exchange, along with the gentleness, patience and calmness of the Prophet –peace be upon him– led to the chief willingly accepting Islam and becoming from its people.

An–Nawawi –may Allah have mercy upon him– writes regarding the saying of the Prophet –peace be upon him– ‘What do you think I am going to do with you, O Thumamah?’: “He repeated this question to him over three days in order to win his heart and out of courtesy to him, as he was an influential person who it was hoped would cause many others to convert.”(1102)

2. Muslim references a narration in his authentic collection of Prophetic traditions, wherein Thawban, the freedman of the Prophet –peace be upon him–, said:
“While I was standing beside Allah’s Messenger –peace be upon him– a Jewish rabbi came and said: ‘Peace be with you, O Muhammad.’ I pushed him so hard that he almost fell over. He said to me: ‘Why did you push me?’ so I replied: ‘Why do you not say O Messenger –peace be upon him–of Allah?’ The Jew said: ‘I am merely calling him by the name his family gave him.’ Upon hearing this, Allah’s Messenger:–peace be upon him– said: ‘The name my family gave me is indeed Muhammad.’ The Jew then said: ‘I have come to ask you some questions’ to which the Prophet –peace be upon him– replied: ‘Will what I say be of use to you?’ He said: ‘I will lend my ears to it.’ The Prophet –peace be upon him– poked the ground with a stick he had with him and said: ‘Ask whatever you wish.’ Thereupon, the Jew said: ‘Where will the people be on the day when the earth will be replaced with another earth, and the heavens likewise?’ Allah’s Messenger:–peace be upon him– said: ‘They will be in darkness on the bridge.’ He said: ‘Who will be the first of the people to cross it?’ The Prophet –peace be upon him– replied: ‘The poor from amongst the emigrants.’ The Jew asked: ‘What will they be offered when they enter Paradise?’ The Prophet –peace be upon him– replied: ‘The caudate lobe of a whale’s liver.’ He then asked: ‘What will they eat following that?’ The Prophet –peace be upon him– replied: ‘The bullocks which graze from the different parts of Paradise will be slaughtered for them.’ He said: ‘What will be their drink alongside that?’ The Prophet –peace be upon him– replied: ‘They will drink from a spring called Salsabil.’ The Jew said: ‘You have spoken the truth. I have also come to ask you about something which none of the inhabitants of the earth knows except for a Prophet, or one or two people.’ The Prophet –peace be upon him– said: ‘Will it be of benefit to you if I tell you?’ He said: ‘I will lend my ears to it. I have come to ask you about the conception of a child.’ The Prophet –peace be upon him– said: ‘The liquid of the man is whitish, and that of the woman is yellowish. When the two mix, if the ejaculate of the man dominates the ejaculate of the woman, a male is born by the permission of Allah. If the ejaculate of the woman dominates the ejaculate of the man, a female is born by the permission of Allah.’ The Jew said: ‘You have indeed spoken the truth and you are truly a Prophet.’ Then he turned and departed. The Prophet –peace be upon him– said: ‘He asked me regarding things I was ignorant of until Allah imparted knowledge of them unto me.’(1103)

The Prophet –peace be upon him– used to hold the People of the Book to what their books contained from teachings and he would reprimand them for contradicting that which their messengers came with. Despite their misguidance, they would ask detailed, precise questions due to the knowledge they possessed of their books. The rabbi in the foregoing narration questioned the Prophet –peace be upon him– thinking that he would be unable to answer such questions, however he was wrong as the Prophet –peace be upon him– answered all of his questions.(1104)

Moreover, this dialogue reveals some remarkable Prophetic traits, namely his great modesty and his gentleness towards opponents. The Prophet –peace be upon him– displayed humbleness to the Jewish rabbi by agreeing to be addressed by his name instead of insisting that the rabbi call him by his title and thus acknowledge his prophethood. The reason for this was because the Prophet –peace be upon him– hoped for his guidance.

Another etiquette of conversation revealed by this dialogue is that one should not engage in vain or meaningless discussion. This is understood from the fact the Prophet –peace be upon him– asked the rabbi whether he would find the answer to such questions useful or not before replying to him.

It is for these reasons the dialogue achieved its intended result: the Jew stopped asking questions and acknowledged the prophethood of Muhammad .

------------------------------------------------------

(1088) See: ‘Huquq al–Insan’ (pp. 312–7).

(1089) See: ‘Lisan al–‘Arab’ (9/257).

(1090) See: ‘Bada•i’ as–Sana•i’’ of Ibn Al–Qayyim (3/132–3).

(1091) Reported by Muslim (no. 2593).

(1092) Reported by Muslim (no. 2594).

(1093) Reported by al–Bukhari (no. 6124) & Muslim (no. 1733).

(1094) Reported by al–Bukhari (nos. 2183, 2260, 2271, 2465, 2467) & Muslim (no. 1601).

(1095) Reported by al–Bukhari (nos. 5678, 5683, 5901, 6038) & Muslim (no. 2165).

(1096) Reported by al–Bukhari (no. 6404).

(1097) See: ‘Muhammadun Rasulullahi wa Khaatam an–Nabiyyin’ (p. 72) & ‘Mawsu’at Nadhratun–Na’im’ (6/2287–2299).

(1098) Reported by al–Bukhari (no. 6788) & Muslim (no. 2648).

(1099) See: ‘Sahih al–Bukhari’ (nos. 6109–13).

(1100) See: ‘Min Sifat ad–Da’iyah Mura’at Ahwal al–Mukhatabin’ (p. 86) & ‘Min Sifat ad–Da’iyah ar–Rifq wal–Lin’ of Dr Fadl Ilahi (pp. 39–45).

(1101) Reported by al–Bukhari (nos. 462, 469, 2422 and 4372) & Muslim (no. 1764).

(1102) See: ‘Sahih Muslim’ with the explanation of an–Nawawi (12/89).

(1103) Reported by Muslim (no. 315).

(1104) See: ‘Tarikh al–Jadal’ of Shaikh Muhammad Abu Zahrah (p. 49) & ‘al–Hiwar’ of al–Mughamisi (p. 141).

Section Five: Jihad in Islam
Introduction
Due to the lengthiness of the topic of jihad, a detailed discussion regarding it is beyond the scope of this treatise. However, an overview of jihad and its main objectives will be presented by exploring some of the issues related to it. The appearance of jihad in the Prophetic biography, the Islamic rules of warfare, and some examples of the behaviour of Muslims at war shall also be referred to throughout the following subsections.

Firstly: The meaning of jihad
1. The true nature of jihad:
Shaikh ‘Abdur–Rahman As–Sa’di –may Allah have mercy upon him– writes: “The true meaning of jihad is diligence and the exertion of every effort to strengthen the Muslims, to reform them, to unite them, to unify them and to repel or defend against enemy attacks using all possible means.”(1105)

2. The types of jihad in Islam:
Shaikh ‘Abdur–Rahman as–Sa’di –may Allah have mercy upon him– writes: “There are two types of jihad; the first is striving to achieve the betterment of Muslims by seeking to reform their beliefs, character and behaviour, in addition to the rest of their religious and secular affairs, as well as nurturing them upon knowledge and action. This is the origin of jihad and its core, upon which is based the second type, namely that of repelling and defending against the attacks of those who display enmity towards Islam or Muslims, whether they be disbelievers, atheists, or others. Each type makes use of appropriate means: the first uses evidences, proofs and reasoning, while the second uses weapons appropriate to the time and place. This is the basic typology of jihad.”(1106)

He goes on to detail further categories of jihad pertaining to the Muslims, including striving to establish harmony and unity between Muslims; preparing to face enemies with all available means and taking precautionary measures against opponents. He notes that these obligations are functions of capacity and ability.

As–Sa’di also mentions that having knowledge of the condition of other nations and their politics is also considered from jihad, just as jihad for the sake of Allah includes adherence to treaties and agreements with justice and loyalty, and the formation of alliances and friendly ties between Islamic states.

He adds that showing concern for education and learning is from the key aspects of jihad, and that jihad includes matters such as taking care of things which one has been entrusted with, as well as selecting suitable people for jobs and positions of authority, et cetera.(1107)

All of this demonstrates the wide scope of the concept of jihad in Islam and indicates it is more inclusive and comprehensive than being merely restricted to war and combat.

3. Islam is the religion of strength:
Strength is praiseworthy in all its forms and it is a trait people both admire and aspire to. A person who is determined and resolute achieves their objectives either through power of intellect, power of knowledge or physical power. Thus, strength of body, mind and character are all commendable. Needless to say, all forms of strength must be used for good causes that are of benefit to oneself as well as others.

Similarly, only strong countries are revered and considered as great by their allies.

Allah has made strength a law of life. Indeed, the rights of people can only be preserved and protected if strength and force are present; rights which are unable to be granted to their deserved owners are pointless.

All the nations and states of the world fortify themselves with every possible means available to them throughout history, and more so in modern times wherein these means have become extremely advanced and sophisticated.

The foregoing has been a short introduction to strength and its importance. The nature of Islam and its followers will be discussed in what follows.

Many non–Muslims mistakenly believe Islam is a religion which is limited to a set of conceptual beliefs and a few rites of worship. For them, Islam is a personal choice of religion and belief by way of which one worships their Lord according to what they perceive as being correct. However, Islam is greater than this narrow understanding. It is, certainly and above all, that one believes Allah is the only God deserving of worship, that He possesses all attributes of perfection and that He is devoid of all faults and imperfections. In addition to this, though, Islam is a comprehensive legislation which tends to every human need, whether in a personal or social capacity, whether in peacetime or in wartime, with family and friends, as well as with strangers and foes. This legislation comes in the form of laws and regulations which encompass political, social, behavioural, and economic systems, among others.

As for the people of Islam, then they do not form a community in the traditional sense of the word, which usually refers to a group of people who have some sort of affinity or certain common points which bring them together. Rather the nation of Islam unites everyone who follows the religion, irrespective of gender, colour, race or geographical location.(1108) Viewed in this way, Islam is not a narrow religion, nor are its people a closed community. Based on this, jihad is from the legitimate ways of spreading the truth and causing people to embrace Islam. It should be noted that the Islamic term is jihad, which is broad and comprehensive, not war or fighting. War usually refers to fighting between people, parties and nations based on personal motives or material gains. However, fighting which is authorised by Islam is not of this nature or for these reasons or objectives.(1109)

4. The meaning of jihad ‘for the sake of Allah’:
After defining jihad, explaining its reality and mentioning the reasons for why such a word was chosen, it is appropriate that the meaning of the phrase ‘for the sake of Allah’ is analysed, as it is a phrase commonly associated with jihad in Islamic terminology.

This expression refers to the purpose of Islamic power and is one of the indispensable criteria for its use. Its absence renders jihad invalid and spoils its legitimacy, in addition to invalidating anything that results from it.

‘For the sake of Allah’ means that every action a Muslim performs intending the good pleasure of Allah primarily, as well as safeguarding public interest and ensuring happiness of the Muslim community. Conversely, if a person were to spend wealth on good, deserving causes with the intention of attaining worldly goals or for the praise of people it would not be considered as giving for the sake of Allah, even if the recipient is poor and needy. Thus, the expression ‘for the sake of Allah’ refers to acts which are performed exclusively for Allah alone, without being polluted by desires or personal interests.

This criterion is associated with jihad as an emphasis of this meaning. True Islamic jihad is free from every personal interest, inclination or goal. Its sole objective must be the establishment of a just system wherein people treat each other equitably and thus the truth spreads, and justice is upheld.

Allah the Almighty says:
(الَّذِينَ ءَامَنُواْ يُقَاتِلُونَ فِي سَبِيلِ اللَّهِ وَالَّذِينَ كَفَرُواْ يُقَاتِلُونَ فِي سَبِيلِ الطَّاغُوتِ)
Sura an–Nisa•; (4):76
(Meaning: Those who believe fight in the cause of Allah, and those who disbelieve fight in the cause of Satan.)

The two canonical collections of Prophetic traditions reference a narration on the authority of Abu Musa Al–Ash’ari that he said:
“A man came to the Prophet –peace be upon him– and said to him: ‘O Messenger –peace be upon him–of Allah! What does it mean to fight for the sake of Allah, because some of us fight out of anger, or due to tribalism? Prophet Muhammad –peace be upon him– raised his head because the man was standing and replied by saying: “Whoever fights in order so that Allah’s word is uppermost is fighting for His sake.”(1110)

The Quran and the Prophetic traditions are filled with evidences confirming and emphasising this meaning, as well as stressing the necessity of committing to it.(1111)

Secondly: An overview of jihad in light of the Prophetic biography
Few people are ignorant of the fact that Muhammad  transformed humanity by bringing wisdom, guidance and reform. The sword he commanded to be drawn at times is comparable to a surgeon’s scalpel which is used to make incisions in the body to draw out bad blood so that the health and wellbeing of a person are preserved. Anyone who studies the Prophetic biography will find therein confirmation for the words of Aisha –may Allah be pleased with her– who said: “Allah’s Messenger –peace be upon him–never sought revenge for himself regarding anything, unless Allah’s limits were exceeded, in which case he would take revenge for the sake of Allah.”(1112) Thus, Muhammad –peace be upon him– did not fight those who spread corruption and do not reform to preserve his own life, rather he did so to ensure the preservation of virtue and the manifestation of the truth, as well as to spread the light of monotheism and establish a healthy, functional society. However, those who are uninformed and follow their desires do not comprehend this matter.(1113)

What did the opposers of Prophet Muhammad –peace be upon him– expect him to do in the face of repeated attacks which aimed to take his life? It is well–known how the disbelievers plotted against him and imposed an economic, political and social boycott upon him, as well as his companions and some of his relatives while he lived in the area known as Shi’b Abi Talib. The boycott was so severe that those affected by it resorted to eating the leaves of trees out of hunger. If Allah had not aroused compassion in the hearts of some nobles, the disbelievers would have succeeded in achieving their goal. Following this incident, Prophet Muhammad –peace be upon him– had no choice but to allow his companions to emigrate to Madinah. He joined them on the night wherein the disbelievers conspired that representatives from each tribe would collectively murder him with their swords so that the responsibility would be shared by several tribes which the Quraysh would be unable to avenge. How could they have expected Prophet Muhammad –peace be upon him– to endure any more than this? How was he supposed to make peace with people who took up arms against him while he had nobody to protect him except Allah?!

The extent of the patience of Prophet Muhammad –peace be upon him– in the face of such oppression is proof of his tolerance, peacefulness and lenience towards people who only understood the language of force. He was more than amicable with the polytheists, however his patience did not help and to continue acting in such a way would have contradicted the logic of life as well as the nature of the Prophet –peace be upon him– who, like the Arab horsemen, was strong in character and of noble ancestry. Above all, though, he was sent as a Prophet –peace be upon him–to humanity, in order to teach people in accordance with their capacities.

If people were beneficent toward him, he was not except beneficent in return. If they acted in a contrary manner, his religion provides appropriate means to respond to such behaviour. Surprisingly, the behaviour of Muhammad –peace be upon him– and the means by which he defended his message were the same taken by humans for centuries prior to him to maintain their existence. If people submitted to injustice and subjected themselves to unfair treatment, nobody would stand up to oppressors or tyrants who would thus be venerated and revered.

Had the companions of Muhammad –peace be upon him– addressed him in the same way as the companions of Moses when they said to him:
(فَاذْهَبْ أَنتَ وَرَبُّكَ فَقَاتِلَآ إِنَّا هَاهُنَا قَاعِدُونَ)
Sura al–Ma•idah; (5):24
(Meaning: “Go and fight, you and your Lord, for verily we shall remain right here”), humanity would have been deprived of the secrets of this religion in solving the global issues of today. (1114)

As the following subsection shall clarify, Prophet Muhammad –peace be upon him– did not renounce mercy even when he did recourse to war, nor was his primary goal bloodshed without regard for sanctity or for treaties.

Thirdly: The Islamic ethics of warfare
Islamic warfare is governed by rules and regulations which are imbued with mercy and gentleness.

From the manifestations of gentleness in Islamic warfare is the prohibition of causing harm to non–combatants such as monks, farmers, women, children, old people, prisoners, employees, the mentally disabled, the blind and the infirm. Some Islamic jurists even forbid the killing of blind and infirm people who play a decisive role in enemy tactics.

Similarly, the killing of women is impermissible, even if they are used for guarding and even if they throw stones or similar objects, due to the saying of Allah the Almighty:
(وَقَاتِلُواْ فِي سَبِيلِ اللَّهِ الَّذِينَ يُقَاتِلُونَكُمْ وَلَا تَعْتَدُوٓاْ)
Sura al–Baqarah; (2):190
(Meaning: Fight in the way of Allah those who fight you, but do not transgress.) Thus, Allah made fighting a means of retaliation against those who instigate it. Furthermore, Prophet Muhammad –peace be upon him– banned the killing of anyone who does not participate in fighting. When he found a woman who had been killed, he expressed disapproval and said: “This woman was certainly not a fighter!”(1115)

Likewise, it is unlawful to engage in combat with an enemy who places women or children at their forefront, unless they deliberately use them as human shields in order to gain victory over the Muslims and there is a fear of harm befalling the Muslim army. Moreover, mutilation is strictly forbidden in Islam, due to the saying of the Prophet: “Do not mutilate and do not kill children.”(1116) It is forbidden to transport severed heads from one land to another or to send them to leaders as trophies, as is indicated by the narration referenced by Al–Bayhaqi, on the authority of ‘Uqbah bin ‘Aamir Al–Juhani that ‘Amr bin Al–‘Aas and Shurahbil ibn Hasana sent him as a Messenger –peace be upon him–to Abu Bakr As–Siddiq –may Allah be pleased with him– with the severed head of the Levantine commander, Yannaq. When he arrived, Abu Bakr condemned such an act, so ‘Uqbah said to him in protest: ‘O Caliph of the Messenger –peace be upon him–of Allah, but they do that to us!’ Abu Bakr replied: ‘Do you imitate the Persians and the Romans now? Do not come to me with a severed head; it is sufficient to write to me or to inform me.”(1117) Another narration, on the authority of ‘Imran bin Husayn and Samurah bin Jundub, mentions that the Prophet –peace be upon him– forbade mutilation.(1118) Mutilation refers to the disfigurement of bodies by spoiling their appearance, whether before or after death, such as by amputating a nose or an ear, or by gouging an eye or dismembering a limb.(1119)

Moreover, Islam grants the commander of the army a number of choices regarding the fate of prisoners of war, which they may decide between in accordance with the interests of war. From the choices they are provided is the freeing of prisoners, either out of grace or in return for a ransom.

Another ethic of Islamic warfare is that if a combatant is granted asylum by any military personnel, their protection becomes mandatory and nobody is allowed to harm them in any way, due to the saying of Prophet Muhammad –peace be upon him–: “The asylum offered by the lowest of them in status applies to them all.”(1120) The Prophet –peace be upon him– upheld the asylum granted by his cousin, Umm Haani•, who was the daughter of his paternal uncle, Abu Talib, to a polytheist when he said to her: “We have granted asylum to whoever you grant asylum to, O Umm Hani•”.(1121)

During the caliphate of ‘Umar bin Al–Khattab, a slave granted asylum to the inhabitants of an area in Iraq. The army commander, Abu ‘Ubaydah, wrote a message to ‘Umar asking for his opinion regarding the asylum to which he responded: “Allah has placed great importance upon loyalty, and you will not be considered loyal until you demonstrate your loyalty. Be loyal to them and leave them alone.”(1122)

Another moral principle of warfare reflective of Islam’s gentleness and mercy is the display of courtesy towards enemy messengers and abstaining from harming them. An enemy Messenger –peace be upon him–may come with an offer of peace or other proposal which could calm the hostilities of war and thus, it would be unwise to harm messengers. Rather their safety should be ensured until they return to their people, as attacking them would put an end to the exchange of messages between the two sides and stop any negotiations which could prevent war altogether or end it if it has already begun. Nobility prevents a person from harming messengers, even if they are sent with a pronouncement of war or with provocative speech. Islamic warfare has adopted this practice since its institution.(1123) For example, when Abu Rafi’ brought a message from the Quraysh tribe to Prophet Muhammad –peace be upon him–, and as soon as he saw the Prophet –peace be upon him–, Islam was cast into his heart. He said: “O Messenger –peace be upon him–of Allah! By Allah, I shall never return to them!” Allah’s Messenger –peace be upon him– replied by saying: “I do not break a covenant or imprison messengers, but return, and if you feel the same as you do now, then return.” He said: “So I returned, then I came back to Allah’s Messenger –peace be upon him– and embraced Islam.”(1124)

The foregoing has been an overview of the Islamic ethics of warfare. Such ethics have changed the perception of people towards war and shown them that compassion is not incompatible with war, which is synonymous with sternness, severity and harshness. This misconception stems largely from the destructive and barbaric practices of modern warfare which are devoid of mercy both during and in the aftermath of war. Despite this, one who looks into Islamic history and the Prophetic biography will find proof of his mercy and kindness towards enemies even after his conquests. Perhaps the best example of this was on the day of the Conquest of Makkah, when Prophet Muhammad –peace be upon him–, following a bitter struggle and enduring the persecutions of the Quraysh tribe, came out victorious and surrounded his enemy from all sides. Quraysh anticipated the worst due to their previous treatment of the Prophet –peace be upon him–, thinking he would enter Makkah as an authoritarian tyrant, arrogant and vengeful, however they were shocked to see him enter humbly, submissive to his Lord, without the slightest arrogance or gloating. Seeing that the tribespeople of Quraysh were expecting to be put to death and that his companions were waiting for the slightest indication to exterminate them, he addressed the tribe of Quraysh by saying: “What do you think I am going to do with you?” They replied: “You are a noble brother and a noble nephew.” He then said to them: “Then go your way, for you are free.”(1125)

The mercy and clemency at the basis of Islamic war ethics had a profound effect on many of the enemies of Islam and filled them with admiration for the religion, its Prophet, its people and their good treatment. There are almost innumerable occurrences of non–Muslims embracing Islam due to them learning that in Islam, they are treated with a greater degree of mercy and justice than by their co–religionists.(1126)

Fourthly: Examples of the behaviour of Muslims at war
One of the best testaments to Islamic tolerance is the fact that many of the Crusaders ended up embracing the same religion they initially travelled entire continents to eradicate.

During the First Crusade, a body of Germans and Lombards under the command of a knight named Rainaud were from those who embraced Islam.

Sir Thomas Arnold notes that throughout the Second Crusade, many more Crusaders embraced Islam. He recounts the story of Odo of Deuil, a monk of St. Denis, who in the capacity of private chaplain to Louis VII, accompanied his travelling party during this Crusade.

The monk’s graphic account runs as follows:
“While endeavouring to make their way overland through Asia Minor to Jerusalem, the Crusaders sustained a disastrous defeat at the hands of the Turks in the mountain passes of Phrygia (A.D. 1148), and with difficulty reached the seaport town of Attalia. Here, all who could afford to satisfy the exorbitant demands of the Greek merchants, took ship for Antioch; while the sick and wounded and the mass of pilgrims were left behind at the mercy of their treacherous allies, the Greeks, who received five–hundred marks from Louis, on condition that they provided an escort for the pilgrims and took care of the sick until they were strong enough to be sent on after the others. But no sooner had the army left, the Greeks informed the Turks of the helpless condition of the pilgrims, and quietly looked on while famine, disease and the arrows of the enemy carried havoc and destruction through the camp of these unfortunates. Driven to desperation, a party of three or four thousand attempted to escape but were surrounded and cut to pieces by the Turks, who now pressed on to the camp to follow up their victory. The situation of the survivors would have been utterly hopeless, had not the sight of their misery melted the hearts of the Muhammadans to pity. They tended the sick and relieved the poor and starving with open–handed liberality. Some even bought up the French money which the Greeks had got out of the pilgrims by force or cunning, and lavishly distributed it among the needy. So great was the contrast between the kind treatment the pilgrims received from the unbelievers and the cruelty of their fellow–Christians, the Greeks, who imposed forced labour upon them, beat them and robbed them of what little they had left, that many of them voluntarily embraced the faith of their deliverers. As the old chronicler says: “Avoiding their co–religionists who had been so cruel to them, they went in safety among the infidels who had compassion upon them, and, as we heard, more than three thousand joined themselves to the Turks when they retired. Oh, kindness crueller than all treachery! They gave them bread but robbed them of their faith, though it is certain that contented with the services they performed, they compelled no one among them to renounce this religion.”

The admiration of the Crusaders for the courage of Saladin and his virtue was such that many of them, leaders and commoners alike, left their families and renounced their religions by converting to Islam. One such example was the conversion of the English templar knight, Robert of St. Albans, who embraced Islam before Saladin’s victory at the Battle of Hattin, in which the King of Jerusalem, Guy of Lusignan, was taken prisoner. Some Christian historians record that six of the King’s generals fell under the sway of the devil the night before the battle and they converted to Islam and joined the ranks of the enemy without any coercion. Saladin enjoyed such prestige that Raymond III, the Count of Tripoli, agreed to let him preach Islam among the Crusaders.(1127)

Even after Saladin’s reign, when the Crusaders initiated the Third Crusade in retaliation for the capture of Jerusalem, Crusaders who endured misery and hunger among their comrades continued to flee to the ranks of the Muslims. Some converted, others returned to their people, while yet others chose to remain as Christians and fight alongside the Muslims.

A chronicler of the time, Sir John Mandeville, wrote the following: “Also it befalleth some–time, that Christian men become Saracens, either for poverty or for simpleness, or else for their own wickedness.”

Of course, one would expect a crusader like Mandeville to interpret what Muslims call guidance as stupidity and wretchedness. What concerns us is the fact that those who Sir John Mandeville refers to as poor, stupid and misguided embraced Islam willingly when initially they intended to wipe it out altogether. They were convinced by its teachings and guidelines and were not forced or coerced into embracing Islam.

Better still, some contemporary Christian historians of the time of the Conquest of Jerusalem and others who lived long after the demise of the Crusader states in the Levant relate the joy of the Christians after liberation from rule of the Crusaders.

Sir Thomas Arnold writes regarding this:
“The Christians gladly accepted Islamic rule and the Muslim rulers continued upon their ancient customs of tolerance and greatness of spirit towards the faithful of other religions.”

Professor ‘Abdur–Rahman ‘Azzam writes:
“The examples provided are of the propagation of Islam among its fiercest enemies during its darkest days, at the time of the Crusades and Tatar invasions. However, there are also examples from the glory years of the Umayyad caliphate, one of which shall be provided in conclusion to this chapter.

Joseph III, Patriarch of the Jacobite Church of the East, wrote in a long letter to a fellow member of the clergy:
“What have become of your flock, O Father? What has become of the great people of Merv? They were not afflicted by a calamity, nor were they victims of the sword, nor were they tormented by fire. Instead they succumbed to the delights of this world and abandoned their religion, throwing themselves to perdition and disbelief like lunatics. Only two priests escaped from this hell of disbelief – i.e. Islam –. Alas! How pitiful it is that not one from the thousands of people who called themselves Christians fell as a martyr or sacrificed themselves for their religion?!

What have become of the monasteries of Kerman and the churches of Persia? It was not the coming of a demon, nor a king, nor a ruler, nor the order of a caliph or sultan which made them disappear. Nor was it the work of a talented sorcerer who beguiled them, nor was it the result of Satan’s influence on them. Rather it was the work of a magician whose mere nod caused the churches of Persia to collapse!

As for the Arabs whom God granted possession of this world as you know from those living in your midst, they do not insult our religion, nor do they attack our monasteries. On the contrary, they are in solidarity without religion and prefer it over others. They honour our monks and bishops, respect our saints and send gifts to our places of worship. Why, then, did the inhabitants of Merv forsake Christianity in order to draw closer to the Arabs when they know only too well that the Arabs do not request from them that they renounce their faith? Rather they fully approve of their choice and only impose a derisory tax upon them. Despite all this, they give up the eternal life of their souls for temporary enjoyment?!”(1128)

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(1105) See: ‘Wujub at–Ta’awun Baynal–Muslimin’ of Shaikh ‘Abdur–Rahman as–Sa’di (p. 7).

(1106) See: ‘Wujub at–Ta’awun Baynal–Muslimin’ (pp. 7–8).

(1107) See: ‘Wujub at–Ta’awun Baynal–Muslimin’ (pp. 8–30).

(1108) See: ‘Talbis Mardud fi Qadaya Hayyah’ (pp. 95–8).

(1109) See: ‘Talbis Mardud fi Qadaya Hayyah’ (pp. 98–9).

(1110) Reported by al–Bukhari (no. 123) & Muslim (no. 1904).

(1111) See: ‘Talbis Mardud fi Qadaya Hayyah’ (pp. 100–2).

(1112) Reported by al–Bukhari (no. 3367) & Muslim (no. 2327).

(1113) See: ‘Hada•iq al–Anwar’ (1/44, 2/509); ‘Muhammadun Rasulullahi wa Khatam an–Nabiyyin’ (p. 104) & ‘Muhammadun Rasulullah’ of Muhammad Rida (p. 230).

(1114) See: ‘Nabiyy al–Malhamah’, an article written by Prof. ‘Abdus–Sabur Marzuq in ‘Muhamadun Rasulullah’ of Ahmad Taimur Basha (pp. 181–5).

(1115) Reported by Abu Dawud in his ‘Sunan’ (no. 2669) & Ibn Hibban in his ‘Sahih’ (no. 4791).

(1116) Reported by Muslim (no. 1731).

(1117) Reported by Al–Bayhaqi in his ‘Sunan’ (9/132). He commented on it in ‘Talkhis al–Habir’ (4/288), saying: ‘Its chain of narration is authentic’.

(1118) Reported by Ahmad in ‘al–Musnad’ (4/439, 440, 460) & Abu Dawud (no. 2667), and graded as authentic by al–Albani in ‘Sahih Sunan Abi Dawud’ (no. 2322).

(1119) See: ‘Jami’ al–‘Ulum wal–Hikam’ of Ibn Rajab (1/390–2).

(1120) Reported by al–Hakim in ‘al–Mustadrak’ (no. 2623) & Abu Dawud in his ‘Sunan’ (no. 4530) and graded by al–Albani as authentic in ‘Sahih Sunan Abi Dawud’ (no. 3797).

(1121) Reported by al–Bukhari (nos. 350, 3000 and 5806) & Muslim (no. 336).

(1122) See: ‘Tarikh at–Tabari’ (3/188).

(1123) See: ‘Rusul al–Islah’ (1/117–8) & ‘Aadab al–Harb fil–Islam’ of Shaikh Muhammad al–Khidr Husayn (p. 45).

(1124) Reported by Ahmad (no. 23908), Abu Dawud (no. 2708) & al–Hakim in ‘al–Mustadrak’ (no. 6538) and graded by al–Albani in ‘Sahih Sunan Abi Dawud’ as authentic (no. 2396).

(1125) See: ‘Sunan al–Kubra’ of al–Bayhaqi (9/118) & ‘Fath al–Bari’ of Ibn Hajr (8/18).

(1126) The preceding rules and ethics of Islamic warfare are mentioned in abridged form intended to provide an overview of the topic. For further detail, including the intricacies and exceptions to such rulings, see the books of exegesis, jurisprudence and hadith commentaries, as well as books on warfare and jihad.

See: ‘al–Mabsut’ of as–Sarkhasi (10/5); ‘Sharh Fath al–Qadir’ of Ibn al–Hammam (4/90); ‘al–Mughni’ of Ibn Qudamah (9/326); ‘Rawdatut–Talibin’ of an–Nawawi (10/150); ‘Aadab al–Harb’ Shaikh Muhammad al–Khidr Husayn & ‘Qawa’id al–Harb fi ash–Shari’ah al–Islamiyyah’ of Shaikh ‘Awwadh al–Wuthaynani.

(1127) See: ‘ar–Risalah al–Khalidah’ of ‘Abdur–Rahman ‘Azzam (pp. 313–5).

(1128) See: ‘ar–Risalah al–Khalidah’ (pp. 313–20).

Section Six: The Islamic Perspective on Terrorism
Introduction
Islam’s perspective on terrorism has been clarified in earlier chapters and sections, as has the norm of Islamic tolerance. This section, in addition to emphasising the points which have previously been discussed, will extend the previous discussion by exploring the meaning of terrorism and the Islamic perspective regarding it, and will refute the common misconception that Islam and Muslims are to blame for terrorism. The current section will be brief due to many aspects of the topic having already been addressed.

Firstly: The meaning of terrorism
1. The linguistic meaning of terrorism:
In Arabic, this term derives from the trilateral root which means ‘to be scared’. Thus, to terrorise means to cause fright and horror.

Feelings of fear can also be evoked by striking awe into a person, as occurs in the saying of Allah:
(وَاسْتَرْهَبُوهُمْ وَجَآءُو بِسِحْرٍ عَظِيم)
Sura al–A’raf; (7):116
(Meaning: And they struck them with awe and displayed a great magic.) i.e. they struck terror into them.(1129)

2. The universal meaning of terrorism:
The word terrorism is one which is vague due to the fact each person interprets it differently. At the same time, it is a very common and widely used term which frequently appears in politics and the mass media. A researcher would find it immensely difficult to establish a comprehensive definition for terrorism because of the vagueness surrounding it. In fact, a legislator who attempted such a task counted one–hundred and nine separate definitions of terrorism from experts in varying fields.(1130) Despite this, the following definitions are at least indicative of the meaning of terrorism.

It should be noted that flaws exist in some of these definitions, however the definition provided by the Islamic Fiqh Council is both clear and comprehensive.
a. The United States Code defines terrorism as:
“Premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against non–combatant targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents.”(1131)

b. The Academic American Encyclopaedia classes terrorism as:
“The calculated recourse to acts of violence or to the threat of violence with the intention of causing fear and subduing people. It can take various forms such as killings, kidnappings and explosions, and is usually aimed at achieving specific political goals.”(1132)

c. The Global Arabic Encyclopaedia defines terrorism as:
“The use of violence or of the threat of violence for the purpose of causing fear and alarm. Terrorists murder or kidnap people, carry out explosions, hijack planes and commit arson, as well as other serious crimes, mostly in pursuit of political objectives.”(1133)

These definitions are inadequate and certain aspects of them are debatable.(1134)

d. It is essential that terrorism is defined from an Islamic perspective, especially as terrorism is often understood as synonymous with Islam and Muslims.

The Islamic Fiqh Council provides arguably the best definition of terrorism when it states:
“Terrorism refers to any act of aggression committed oppressively by an individual, group, or state, against a person’s life, property, intellect, or dignity.” This definition includes all kinds of intimidation, attacks, threats, unjustified killings, piracy, robbery, banditry and acts or threats of violence perpetrated by individuals or groups with the aim of inciting fear and alarm in people by causing them harm or endangering their lives, their freedom or their property.

All these are forms of corruption which Allah the Almighty says regarding:
(وَلَا تَبْغِ الْفَسَادَ فِي الْأَرْضِ)
Sura al–Qasas; (28):77
(Meaning: And do not seek to cause mischief in the land.)

Terrorism is unjust aggression, regarding which Allah says:
(قُلْ إِنَّمَا حَرَّمَ رَبِّيَ الْفَوَاحِشَ مَا ظَهَرَ مِنْهَا وَمَا بَطَنَ وَالْإِثْمَ وَالْبَغْيَ بِغَيْرِ الْحَقِّ وَأَن تُشْرِكُواْ بِاللَّهِ مَا لَمْ يُنَزِّلْ بِهِ سُلْطَانًا وَأَن تَقُولُواْ عَلَى اللَّهِ مَا لَا تَعْلَمُونَ)
Sura al–A’raf; (7):33
(Meaning: Say: “My Lord has only forbidden immorality, whether overt or hidden; all manner of sin; unjust aggression; associating partners with Allah for which He has not sent down authority; and that you say about Allah that which you do not know.)(1135)

Secondly: The Islamic perspective on terrorism
It is possible to present the Islamic perspective on terrorism in light of the foregoing definitions by clarifying the following points:
1. Protecting and defending the Islamic lands is not terrorism.
The Islamic lands refer to territories under the control of Islam. To protect them means to defend them from enemy attacks and to ensure the preservation of the Muslim nation.

One of the greatest objectives of Islam is that the Muslim nation is granted ascendancy and repute and is respected by other nations such that they are deterred from initiating wars with it and disrupting its security.

Allah the Almighty says:
(لَأَنتُمْ أَشَدُّ رَهْبَةً فِي صُدُورِهِم)
Sura al–Hashr; (59):13
(Meaning: Fear of you is more intense in their hearts.) (1136)

In another verse, Allah says:
(وَأَعِدُّواْ لَهُم مَّا اسْتَطَعْتُم مِّن قُوَّة وَمِن رِّبَاطِ الْخَيْلِ تُرْهِبُونَ بِهِ عَدُوَّ اللَّهِ)
Sura al–Anfal; (8):60
(Meaning: And prepare against them whatever you are able of power, including steeds of war by which you may threaten the enemies of Allah.)

Thus, preparing military forces and protecting the Islamic community is not considered as terrorism in the slightest. There is no hope in the continuance of a nation incapable of defending itself, nor is there any hope that an unprotected right will be respected.

2. Islam strictly forbids all terrorism which constitute corruption. All forms of mischief, harm and corruption are prohibited by Islam, whether minor or major, in public or personal affairs.

There are many evidences to support this, both from the Quran and from the Prophetic traditions.

such as the saying of Allah the Almighty:
(وَمِنَ النَّاسِ مَن يُعْجِبُكَ قَوْلُهُۥ فِي الْحَيَاةِ الدُّنْيَا وَيُشْهِدُ اللَّهَ عَلَى مَا فِي قَلْبِهِ وَهُوَ أَلَدُّ الْخِصَامِ ٢٠٤ وَإِذَا تَوَلَّى سَعَى فِي الْأَرْضِ لِيُفْسِدَ فِيهَا وَيُهْلِكَ الْحَرْثَ وَالنَّسْلَ وَاللَّهُ لَا يُحِبُّ الْفَسَادَ)
Sura al–Baqarah; (2):204–5
(Meaning: And of the people is he whose speech pleases you in worldly life, and they call Allah to witness as to what is in their hearts, yet they are the fiercest of opponents. And when they turn away, they strive throughout the land to cause corruption therein and to destroy tillage and progeny. And Allah does not like corruption.)

The great scholar Ibn ‘Ashur explains the meaning and generality of the corruption referred to in the following way:
“The term ‘tillage’ refers to crops while ‘progeny’ refers to young livestock. The Arabic word for progeny means to fall and separate, just as wool does. For me, destruction of tillage and progeny is a metaphor for everything which causes disruption to the lives of people. These two matters were mentioned because the people of that time were reliant on farming and agriculture, however the meaning of the verse includes the loss of anything used by people to sustain themselves.” (1137) He continues: “This is why it is forbidden to burn houses to the ground and cut down trees in times of war, the only exception being if the army commander fears that it will be a source of enemy strength and cause the duration of fighting to be prolonged.”(1138)

Elsewhere, he writes:
“Causing corruption on earth includes making harmful what is good, such as by deceiving people regarding foodstuffs; destroying beneficial things, such as by burning them; killing innocent people; breaking the law, such as by sowing unrest and committing oppression; promoting immorality, such as spreading ignorance, teaching perversion, glamorizing disbelief and showing enmity to the pious.”(1139)

Thus, Islam dissociates itself from terrorism and opposes and combats it in all of its forms, as has preceded. Anyone claiming to be a Muslim that commits an act of terrorism bears sole responsibility for their actions and cannot blame their religion for such atrocities, as has been mentioned previously.

Thirdly: A refutation of the common misconception that Islam and Muslims are to blame for terrorism
It is of great surprise that after the preceding clarification, slanderous accusations of cruelty, brutality, extremism, terrorism, and the like continue to be made against Islam, its Prophet –peace be upon him–and its followers, in order to dissuade people from it.

The obvious truth is that Islam is a religion of mercy, gentleness and tolerance. How did the Muslims behave when they were victorious over their enemies? Were they arrogant, tyrannical or oppressive? Did they commit rape or murder women, children or elderly men?

How did Prophet Muhammad –peace be upon him– act following his victory over his adversaries who had used to harm him in the worst of ways? Did he not pardon them and grant them generously from the war booty?

How did the Muslims behave after their victories over Khosrow II and Caesar? Were they treacherous or disloyal? Did they attack the women or persecute the monks in their monasteries? Did they sow mischief in the land, demolish buildings or destroy plant life?

How did Saladin behave after defeating the Crusaders who persecuted and killed the Muslims? Did he not forgive their leader, offer him treatment and then release him?

How have the non–Muslim citizens residing in the Islamic lands for centuries been treated and how do they continue to be treated until today? Did they not experience security, justice and good treatment? Were they not treated more equitably and kindly by the Muslims than by their co–religionists?

There are many other examples of the nobility of Muslims throughout Islamic history which have caused people to love Islam and to willingly embrace it through conviction.

Is there anyone aside from the Muslims who can provide similar examples? The West? Where did Hitler, Mussolini, Lenin, Stalin and the Serbian war criminals come from? Were they not European, just like the other devils who massacred millions and committed countless atrocities against humanity? Were they not considered to be the vanguard of European civilisation? Who are the cruel, barbaric tyrants except these very people? Who are the extremist terrorists in truth?

Who invented nuclear bombs, cluster bombs, atom bombs, biological weaponry and weapons of mass destruction? Who has caused air pollution and water pollution through exhaust emissions and by use of insecticides, respectively? Who is it that utilizes foul, unjust and dishonourable practices? Who is it that sterilises women, denies citizens their wealth and freedoms and spreads AIDS?

Is it not the West and their allies? Who aids the Jews in their oppression and terrorism? What about the interrogations? What about what takes place in some of the prisons, such as Abu Ghraib?

All of these raw realities are the actual terrorism and oppression. However, it does not mean that all non–Muslims are unfair, oppressive or tyrannical. On the contrary, there are those who stand for justice and disapprove of any unfair practices.

Jihad carried out by Muslims to achieve the truth and repress falsehood, as well as to defend their religion, themselves and their countries is justice, not terrorism. The few mistakes made by some Muslims are insignificant in comparison to the barbarism of the West. Moreover, the responsibility for such mistakes falls on the perpetrators themselves, not their religion, which condemns such acts, or their fellow Muslims, who denounce such behaviour.(1140)

Any equitable person of intellect must view things as they are, free from misrepresentations, falsifications or prejudices.

After this, a person can only be surprised at the Europeans and the Americans who, despite their discoveries, have not yet found the most important and essential thing that would ensure their true happiness, namely the reality of Islam and the greatness of its Prophet. Are they truly ignorant or do they knowingly turn away from it? It would be bad enough if the former was the case, but if the latter is true, then it is even worse!

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(1129) See: ‘Lisan al–Arab’ (1/436–7).

(1130) See: ‘al–Irhab: Dawafi’uhu wa ‘Ilajuhu’ of Dr Muhammad ash–Shuway’ir (p. 101).

(1131) See: ‘al–Irhab: Dawafi’uhu wa ‘Ilajuhu’ (p. 101).

(1132) See: ‘al–Qi’ta’ al–Khairiyy wa Da’awa al–Irhab’ of Dr Muhammad as–Sallumi (p. 109).

(1133) See: ‘al–Qi’ta’ al–Khairiyy wa Da’awa al–Irhab’ (p. 110).

(1134) See: ‘al–Qi’ta’ al–Khairiyy wa Da’awa al–Irhab’ (p. 110–4).

(1135) The Islamic Fiqh Council released a statement on terrorism, including its definition, before the events of 11 September 2001 CE, on the 15/10/1421 AH, which corresponds with 10/01/2001 CE. See: ‘al–Qita’ al–Khairiyy wa Da’awa al–Irhab’ (p. 114).

(1136) See: ‘Usul an–Nitham al–Ijtima’i fil–Islam’ (p. 203).

(1137) See: ‘Tafsir at–Tahrir wat–Tanwir’ (2/270).

(1138) See: ‘Tafsir at–Tahrir wat–Tanwir’ (2/270).

(1139) See: ‘Tafsir at–Tahrir wat–Tanwir’ (2/284–5).

(1140) See: ‘at–Tareeq Ilal–Islam’ (pp. 95–6) & ‘ar–Rahmah wal–‘Athamah fi as–Sirah an–Nabawiyyah’ (pp. 66–9).